Writing a Paper for Me

The purpose of a research paper is to share what you know with others, and the hallmark of a good paperis that it empowers reproducability. That means careful attribution of sources within the paper and in your bib/work cited sections as well as carefully designed, fully described primary research.

The biggest joke in academe, after all, is the

Figure 1. The Journal of Irreproducible Results
Click to go to journal. Will open in new screen.

In other words, even failed research is useful to report, as it keeps people from trying that again. Methodology needs to be transparent so it can be reproduced to see if others get the same results from the same methods. Methods can be good or bad, but bad methodology is small protatoes in the face of dishonest research. Lying about the research will absolutely destroy a career, because it can lead to people making bad or even dangerous decisions in terms of encouraging further research, funding decisions, tenuring a professor, public policy and safety, and so forth. It's primarily for that reason students can be expelled for university for stealing papers, lying about sources, etc. (see Academic Honesty Policy). Of course, as you can see below, the Journal of Irreproducible Results is a humor magazine for smart people who are also...well...smart asses.

Figure 2. Silly tongue in cheek graph proving absolutely nothing in the fanciest way possible. Click graph for for larger image. Opens in new screen.

Citing Sources: Linguistics (APA or MLA)
vs. Literature (MLA)

Linguistics papers for me are laid out like rather like science papers and may, should you prefer, employ APA (American Psychological Association) style. Primary research often has to do with
Literature papers have many of the same parts, except that the primary research involves one or more texts, audiences, and/or performances. The format is MLA (Modern Language Association).
Here, I use the term 'texts' in the semiotic sense of anything that can be 'read,' be it print or other media, clothing, tattoos, behavior, what have you.
MLA Style Guide: (The library has a copy. University students will probably want to buy a copy of the most recent edition.)
Web-focus section in MLA Formatting and Style Guide
General Format in MLA (The Owl, Purdue University)
APA: The OWL at Purdue has the best discussion of APA format that I know.

B. Paper Structure: Layout and Design

Don't bother to add a cover page, table of contents, or list of illustrations to papers shorter than 10 pages unless you have been instructed to do so (for your long paper in my ENGL316, whatever the length, for example)..
Longer (10+ pages) papers should have a Table of Contents and List of Illustrations (see below). Where there are both Tables and Figures (any illustration except a table), separate each out under the main Illustrations heading.
Note: When you use Tables or Figures, always cite your primary and/or secondary source(s) in the caption, even if you discuss the illustration in the text of your paper. Many people flip through material looking at the illustrations, so don't count on the text to always inform in this instance.

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Abstract, Introduction, Methodology: People are busy, and nobody has time these days to spend a few weeks reading everything that has been written on a subject in, say, the last five years.

Abstract. A well written abstract provides a sense of whether a paper is going to be worthwhile given the specific needs of the researcher at the moment. What is your research problem or question? Your methodology? Your findings? Providing a brief, honest, uninflacted explanation of the study's results isn't eliminating suspense (this isn't a mystery story), it's helping the reader winnow out papers she or he doesn't need at the moment. Here, short and to the point is beautiful: 100-150 words should do it.
Introduction. This section very explains the reason for the project, its design, and its objectives
Methodology. How do you plan to go about answering your research question? You'll probably begin with a literature survey and then perhaps set up some interviews, design a survey and choose a research sample, etc. How do you plan to pull off your study in the time you have? If you want to do a survey, how will you select the people you are going to give it to? How will you find out more about them in the demographic portion of your survey? What do you need to know and why? What questions do you plan to ask, and how do you feel they will help you get at the information you need? Checks and balances in place: How will you know if the information you gather is just happenstance? Examples: (1) Geese flew over the site just before the catastrophy, so they must have caused it. (2) The vulcano stopped erupting soon after the virgin was thrown down it, so....

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Research: Plot a course of action and explain what you think it will do for you. Items 2 & 3 are crucial; here's where your professors keep saying to keep your topic small. Something too big here is literally unfinishable during your academic career.

4.1 Secondary research looks at articles, books, web pages, etc., that explains research already done by other people. Whether you do primary research or not, you always start here, because it tells you what has already been done in the field. Why does this come before the primary research? Becuase it sets the scene, giving readers a sense of the jumping off space from which the researcher launched his or her own study. This is also called the Research review.
Literature Review

(what important things have been said in the field on your topic (explains selection and reports on 3.1 above)

An academic paper should reflect a wide reading of the subject area and a good understanding of key concepts and findings. The use of examples is one of the best ways of exhibiting your familiarity with important concepts and it also enhances the reader-friendliness of the paper.
You are expected to be critical in your reading of academic papers. In other words, you should demonstrate that you are aware of previous research findings but also that you do not believe everything you read but rather look critically at each study, especially those of primary interest to your research task. Such a critical awareness may be demonstrated, for example, by referring to contradictory findings from different researchers, by highlighting the failings of previous studies (e.g. limited analysis/ less than ideal methodology, etc.) and also by showing an awareness of questions which remain unanswered.
You should organize your literature review as clearly as possible. Make sure to select only those studies most directly related to the question at hand. You should not simply provide a summary of each study, but rather tie together the results of the studies so that their relevance is clear. When conflicting findings are reported in different studies, suggest possible explanations.
Finally, in line with the introduction, make the case that the research area reviewed is incomplete or requires extension. This establishes the need for research in the area.

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4.2 Primary research is what we call studies you or your team do. You need to explain how you designed your primary research, including rational for

Section 1: Demographics of your research sample (remember to keep the names of your subjects out of the paper -- just number the questionnaires or give the subjects false names like "Mary Smith," "John Doe": note that names in quotation marks are obviously made up for the occasion), which may include such things as

age

sex/gender

education

present and/or childhood geographical area

profession, etc.

Section 2: Discuss the Questions. Why have you asked the questions you chose? What, if anything, have they told you? Remember, even good research is not always conclusive. Always be honest! Inconclusive results occur most of the time in undergraduate research.

Criteria for evaluating the results,

Expectations for responses, etc.

Research Findings/Results (explains methodology and reports on 3.2 above)

Results should be presented in a reader-friendly manner. The use of tables and graphs is recommended (the use of color is by no means obligatory). Tables and graphs should be either included in the main text, or alternatively (if they are large in number) included in an appendix. In the latter case, however, the appendix must be referenced (i.e. cf. Appendix 1) otherwise the reader will not know to look there).

As well as presenting the results, it is also your task to guide the reader through the results in a clear and logical manner. This by no means suggests that every detail included in every table or graph should be commented on, but it does mean that all the findings and the methodology that went into them are clear, and that the most interesting results should be highlighted for the reader, including the fact that (particularly in undergraduate research, they are inconclusive .

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5. Discussion The discussion section either follows the results or may alternatively be integrated in the results section. This is a matter of style although the former style tends to be easier for the writer and clearer for the reader and is, thus, recommended.

The section should consist of a discussion of the results of the study focusing on the question posed in the research paper.
In addition, it should serve to compare your results to previous research findings (i.e. do the present findings reflect/ refute previous findings?). You should also demonstrate an awareness of the limitations of your study in this section.

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6. Conclusion: What, if anything, your research has yielded. Be honest. If the study is inconclusive, say so. If it didn't tell you what you expected to hear, explain that. And, explain why you think that is. Finally, explain what further work by you or others might be helpful. You may never expect to come back to this work again, especially if it's just something you were assigned on deadline for a grade but, for the moment, you are part of an intellectual community actively seeking answers to questions. Write accordingly.

The conclusion is often thought of as the easiest part of the paper but should by no means be disregarded. There are a number of key components which should not be omitted. These include:
You should note that the conclusion is not the place to introduce new insights into the question at hand. All ideas and thoughts should have been already mentioned at this stage. New thoughts should refer to future research questions.
Now stop. Avoid the suck-up conclusion that says that you're a better person for having done this work. Just explain that you now know X, Y, Z about your research question(s). DO NOT PUSH THE DATA. If it is inconclusive, or merely suggestive, or even negative, say so.

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I. Glossary. [as needed] Always define your terms the first time you use them. If your paper is long, it can be hard for your reader to find the first use to get a definition, so it's helpful to create a separate Glossary section. If you do, note (see Glossary) the first time you utilize such a definition.

II. Appendices. [As needed] Use an appendix for any material that is useful to an interested portion of your audience but would force the paper proper out of shape, such as copies of research instruments, demographics on subjects, etc.

(Note: Glossary and Appendices are entirely optional unless there is a primary research survey, in which case you must include a copy of the survey. The actual results can be provided as tables, graphs, etc., within the body of the paper.)

III. Works Cited page (Required. In a large paper, you might want to add a bibliography after the works cited page if and only if you want to provide your reader with a sense of important material in the field that includes material you did not directly cite.)

IV. Bibliography [as needed] If you want to provide a broader set of good books in the field. Not to be confused with Works Cited.

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2002; Last revised July 14, 2008
Dr. Bonnie Duncan
bduncan@millersville.edu
1-717-871-2080
English Department
Millersville University
Millersville, PA 17551

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