"The Age of Discovery" by Wilcomb E. Washburn in American Historical Association Publication Number 63, copyright 1966, pp. 1-26. "The Age of Discovery!" What visions the phrase conjures up! Yet what confusion! The discovery of America by Columbus reverently learned by schoolboys as one of the great and clearcut accomplishments of history, is, when subjected to examination, filled with uncertainty. What do we mean by "America"? Columbus, until his dying day, believed that he had reached Asia. Did he then discover "America" in the sense that we think of it? Moreover, what do we mean by "discover"? Why do we honor Columbus since the Norsemen reached the Western Hemisphere five hundred years earlier? The number of plausible questions that can be raised suggests the variety of possible interpretations for every step of the process by which Europe expanded, not only into the New World that we are accustomed to think of as its particular concern, but into the old world of Asia that was, in fact, its principal goal. The expansion took place largely in the period of the fifteenth through the eighteenth centuries, although it cannot be bound strictly at either end of the time scale. Movement outward from the western European peninsula took varied forms and shapes as it proceeded by land and by sea throughout Europe, Asia, and America. The result was a vast increase in power, wealth, and knowledge for the tiny nation states of western Europe. As a process, European expansion must be studied as a single phenomenon, however difficult it may be for one man to comprehend the myriad events, languages, motives, and consequences which characterize it. Its origins in classical and medieval times, its remarkable achievements in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and its impact during the more scientific and rational eras of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries must all be assessed in order to understand its significance. European expansion was at once medieval and scientific, commercial and spiritual, concerned with both East and West. This pamphlet, therefore, will treat all the continents, oceans, and eras involved in this Age of Discovery. The Norse Discovery of "Vinland" The publication, the day before Columbus Day, 1965, of "The Vinland Map and the Tartar Relation" by Raleigh A. Skelton, Thomas E. Marston, and George D. Painter (New Haven, 1965) has brought the accomplishments of the Norsemen to new prominence. In medieval times the Norse settled in Iceland and Greenland where they established regular if infrequent contact between the new settlements and the Old World. The Pope even appointed a bishop to care for the Christian souls in Greenland and its neighboring regions. From the Icelandic sagas it has long been known that Norsemen from Greenland and Iceland sailed west and found a land they called "Vinland the Good." Analyses and translations of these traditional accounts of the past are available in Gwyn Jones, "The Norse Atlantic Saga: Being the Norse Voyages of Discovery and Settlement to Iceland, Greenland, America" (London, 1964), and in a volume of the Original Narratives of Early American History Series, "The Northern, Columbus and Cabot: 985-1503", ed. Julius E. Olson and Edward G. Bourne (New York, 1906). It was, however, the chance discovery and subsequent publication of the Vinland Map that has given the Norse voyages a reality not conveyed by the shadowy sagas even though, in all probability, the map is a crude and later interpretation of those very sagas. Just as a single picture is worth a thousand words, so does an early map, distorted though it may be, have the impact of thousands of words in conveying sailing directions, landing sites, and, above all, "proof" of the existence of the land itself. The Vinland Map shows a well-defined island west of Greenland, with two deep inlets. One can now speculate with greater validity than heretofore on the precise locations of the various points, bays, and coasts reached by Norsemen, and R.A. Skelton has done a masterful job of extracting what meaning can be derived from the map. Still, the cautious student of discoveries should resist the temptation to relate the uncertain evidence of the past with the navigational charts of today. One can find in the literature any number of educated guesses, running from Labrador to Florida, concerning the location of Norse landfalls. One finds the literature similarly strewn with attempts to prove that physical remains on the North American continent, such as the Kensington Rune Stone in Minnesota or the tower at Newport, Rhode Island, derive from early Norse visits. While the specialist may wish to examine these problems with care, the general student would do well to read deeper in the less controversial literature of the voyages and await the results of the professional archaeologist and historian as they attempt to document genuine Norse sites in America. One such site, that of Epaves Bay or L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland, has been examined by a Norwegian, Helge Ingstad, and his wife, but their claims await fuller documentation and publication of the evidence. The vital role of Norsemen from Iceland and Greenland in the exploration and settlement of North America is forcefully, if intemperately, chronicled by the late Tryggvi J. Oleson, in his "Early Voyages and Northern Approaches, 1000-1632" (London, 1964), the opening volume of the Canadian Centenary Series. Oleson's work, like most others in this controversial field, has outraged some scholars, particularly anthropologists and archaeologists concerned with Eskimo culture, because of its attempt to prove that modern Eskimo culture derives from the mixture of early Norsemen and native people called "Skraelings." Contemporary anthropological opinion insists that the Eskimo culture spread east from the Bering Straits area after migration from the Arctic reaches of Asia, rather than west from the European contact areas of Greenland and the Canadian Arctic. Perhaps the best of the speculative interpretations of the uncertain Norse exploration literature is Farley Mowat, "Westviking: The Ancient Norse in Greenland and North America" (Boston, 1965). Mowat, a native of the northern regions involved and a competent sailor, is particularly ingenious in his analysis of Norse navigation and geographical concepts, and he has boldly formulated a theory of the precise tracks of the voyagers. The historicity of Norse voyages to, and at least temporary settlement in, what we now think of as continental North America is no longer open to question. Moreover, if the Vinland Map is accepted as genuine, the Norse explorations were known, however dimly, in other parts of Europe. Still the question remains: why did no permanent Norse settlement maintain itself? The answers are various and ingenious: all must be speculative. Some argue that a worsening of weather conditions in the intervening centuries was the determining factor. The failure of the Norse to maintain good relations with the native inhabitants is another possibility, made probably by the almost consistent inability of European colonists to achieve viable relationships with the peoples they met in the course of their expansion. The failure of proper ocean communications from Greenland to Iceland and Scandinavia during these dark ages of European development was undoubtedly another contributing factor. Whatever the precise reason (and the probability is that all these factors, and many more, played their role), it is important to remember that an underlying condition of the failure to maintain the settlements was the comparatively hostile environment of the Greenland and Vinland settlements. The upper reaches of the northern hemisphere are not lands flowing in milk and honey, and were undoubtedly not bountiful even in a period of greater warmth. Greenlanders had to import their timber, and their domestic animals lived under comparatively restricted circumstances. True, the land farther west in Vinland the Good was more fruitful. But the difficulty of communication, with the consequent weakening of trade, cultural traditions, and the feeling of community with their brothers to the east, to say nothing of the quickly aroused hostility of the numerous native inhabitants, made the situation in Vinland a difficult one. It is well to recall that the English, despite efforts by the Crown and by private citizens alike, took more than a century to establish a permanent English colony in the New World in latitudes far more attractive to settlement than those to which the Norse fell heir. Still another question remains: why did not the knowledge of the Norse "discovery" of America make the whole enterprise of Columbus meaningless? The answer lies in the fact that the explorers who ventured forth from Portugal and Spain in fifteenth century were not attracted to the cold, sterile lands of the north but sought instead the rich kingdoms of Asia. Our "America" did not exist for them. Even when they eventually found that the "Vinland" of the Norse was the northern extension of a huge continental land mass extending from pole to pole and including "green lands" of some wealth and population, they still persistently sought to get around them and to the intended goal: the wealth of Asia. The Quest for "Asia" The passage to India! This was the goal. And beyond (sailing eastward from Europe) lay fabulous Cathay and the mysterious island of Cipango (Japan). Europeans knew something of this world. Alexander the Great had conquered portions of India and left a lasting impression, not only in the Grecian- style garments portrayed in Gandharan art, but in other aspects of the culture of the subcontinent. William W. Tarn's "The Greeks in Bactria and India" (2nd ed., Cambridge, England, 1951) gives a superb account of this early Western penetration of the East. Even after the disappearance of the Greek presence in India, commercial relations between the two worlds continued along the overland caravan routes and by sea in the bottoms of Arab traders who, behind the expanding mantle of Islam, swept east through the islands of the Indian Ocean, past the Straits of Malacca, and into Indonesia and the islands of the southwest Pacific. It was the Christian fate to find the Mohammedan arch-enemy entrenched along all the routes to the wealth of China: in Africa, in India, and in the lands and islands adjoining the passage around the southeast tip of Asia. George F. Hourani offers an account of Arab expansion in "Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval Times" (Princeton, 1951). Christian Europe was not to face Moslem power in Africa, India, and the Pacific, however, until the development of sea routes around Africa. In the meantime, the West pondered the marvelous tales of Marco Polo and the diplomatic accounts of other travelers to the incredible lands at the other end of the world. Colonel Sir Henry Yule, "Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China" (2nd ed. rev. by Henri Cordier, 4 vols., London, 1913-1916), is still the basic source for the study of this relationship, while the above-cited "Vinland Map and Tartar Relation" provides additional information on the thirteenth- century contacts between West and East. A more readily available and less heavily annotated account is Christopher Dawson, ed., "The Mongol Mission: Narratives and Letters of the Franciscan Missionaries in Mongolia and China in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries" (New York, 1955). Europe's contact with the East in the period of the Renaissance, however, was to develop not by land as it had in medieval times but by sea. It is significant that the breakthrough was achieved by Portugal, the nation farthest removed from the traditional land routes of commerce to the East. The Portuguese achievement rests largely on the shoulders of one man: Prince Henry the Navigator. The story of Prince Henry and the men he sent down the west coast of Africa until they finally rounded the Cape of Good Hope into the Indian Ocean is persuasively set forth by Henry H. Hart, "Sea Road to the Indies: An Account of the Voyages and Exploits of the Portuguese Navigators, together with the Life and Times of the Dom Vasco da Gama, Capitao-Mor, Viceroy of India and Count of Vidigueira" (New York, 1950). Bailey W. Diffie analyzes the origins of Portuguese policy in his "Prelude to Empire: Portugal Overseas before Henry the Navigator" (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1960). But it was the simple scheme of sailing directly west across the sea barrier between Europe and Asia that has captured the imagination and stirred the piety of Americans who were the unexpected by-products of Columbus' insistent vision. The vision was faulty, Columbus enormously underestimated the distance to be traveled to Asia. Cartographical misconceptions and mathematical errors combined to convince him that he could reach the Orient by a short sail west. (All educated men knew the world was round.) Some of his mistaken impressions are discussed in Wilcomb E. Washburn, "Japan on Early European Maps," "Pacific Historical Review", XXI (August 1952), pp. 221-236. Wide practical experience, which according to his own claim had taken him to Iceland and other islands in the Atlantic, and his keen observation of the winds and other signs that led him to choose the ideal route for sailing across the Atlantic--both going and coming--did the rest. Nothing can dim the achievement of the Italian mariner who sailed in the service of Spain, and fortunately the great sailor's story has been told by a great historian. Samuel Eliot Morison's "Admiral of the Ocean Sea" (Boston, 1942) appeared simultaneously in both a two-volume scholarly and one-volume popular edition. Morison has since retold the story of Columbus' epic voyages in briefer compass in "Christopher Columbus, Mariner" (Boston, 1955) and, with Mauricio Obregon, has provided delightful aerial and sea-level photographs of "The Caribbean as Columbus Saw It" (Boston, 1964). A by- product of Morison's research on Columbus is his "Portuguese Voyages to America in the Fifteenth Century" (Cambridge, 1940; reprint: Octagon Books, 1965), which attempts to lay the ghost (very much alive in Portuguese history) of a Portuguese discovery of America before Columbus. Although Columbus' original journal has not survived, we have a close paraphrase and often literal transcription from the hand of Bartolome de Las Casas, whose "History of the Indies" (unfortunately unavailable in English translation) is the most important source for our knowledge of the exploration and conquest of the New World. Las Casas, whose own exciting career as Spanish colonist, priest, historian, defender of the Indians, and conscience of a nation has been related in a series of studies by Lewis U. Hanke, is our source for the knowledge of the day-to-day events of Columbus' epoch-making voyages. A handsome, illustrated edition of the frequently translated "Journal of Christopher Columbus", trans. Cecil Jane, rev. ed. by L.A. Vigneras (New York, 1960), contains an appendix on "The Cartography of Columbus's First Voyage" by R.A. Skelton. Samuel Eliot Morison has also produced a new translation entitled "Journals and Other Documents of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus" (New York, 1963). Ferdinand Columbus, who, as a thirteen-year-old boy, sailed on the fourth voyage (1502-1504), wrote a "History" which has been translated and edited by Benjamin Keen under the title "The Life of the Admiral Christopher Columbus by his Son Ferdinand" (New Brunswick, N.J., 1959), but Ferdinand's work lacks the sweat, the emotion, and the direct observation evident in his father's journal or in Las Casas' sympathetic re-creation and analysis of the events. The achievement of Columbus as set forth in school texts is usually summarized in graphic form by a reproduction of a nineteenth-century painting of the Admiral landing on Watling Island and unfurling the Spanish standard before a group of awe- struck and acquiescent natives. While this image does represent one aspect of the great Age of Discovery, it should never be allowed to obscure the complexity, the sorrow, or the exultation of the relationship between the men of Europe and the men and women of the New World who were mistakenly called Indians because of Columbus' early belief that he had reached India. Contemporary teachers and students, living in relatively stable communities, can hardly comprehend the context within which the European found himself when he stepped into a world where he carried a power almost invariably superior to that which could be brought against him. The literature dealing with the ensuing clash is extensive and controversial. One of the most famous items, "Brief Relation of the Destruction of the Indies", by Father Las Casas, first appeared in Spanish in 1552 and has since been translated into many languages, with varying titles. English editions have had a habit of appearing at times when England or the United States was at war with Spain. The title of the English edition published in 1656 in London, "Tears of the Indians: Being An Historical and True Account of the Cruel Massacres and Slaughters of Above Twenty Millions of Innocent People", translated by John Phillips, gives an indication of the reason the book has found favor among Spain's enemies and has caused rage and despair among those upholding the honor of Spanish colonization. Unfortunately, accounts of European-Indian contact are invariably reported by the European rather than the Indian, so that frequently the student can only guess at the factual as well as the emotional impact of such meetings. There are, however, a few accounts which give an Indian view of the early conquests. Miguel Leon-Portilla, ed., "The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico" (Boston, 1962), makes such an attempt in the case of Cortes' conquest of 1519. The most famous conquests in the New World were of Mexico and Peru, and the stories of those assaults are vividly presented by William Prescott, the nineteenth-century Boston historian, in his "History of the Conquest of Mexico" (1st ed., New York, 1843), and in his "History of the Conquest of Peru" (1st ed., New York, 1847). Prescott's work, after a hundred years, is still readable and dramatic--perhaps too much so. The story of the technical achievement in crossing the ocean and setting up an administrative apparatus to control the newly conquered lands is perceptively related by J.H. Parry in "The Age of Reconnaissance" (Cleveland, 1963), now available in paperback. Parry's well illustrated book contains particularly valuable chapters on the significance of ship design, armament, and scientific instruments in the successful expansion of Europe throughout the Atlantic and Pacific. A briefer but significant recent study is Carlo M. Cipolla, "Guns and Sails in the Early Phase of European Expansion, 1400-1700" (London, 1965). Much of the technical development that enabled Western European nations to conquer the world's oceans emerged from experience gained in navigating the narrow Mediterranean Sea. Frederic C. Lane has written a brilliant account of one aspect of this development in "The Economic Meaning of the Invention of the Compass," "American Historical Review", LXVIII (April 1963), pp. 605-617. Lane analyzes, for the period 1250-1350, the revolution in Europe maritime activity caused by the invention of the mariner's compass. For a broader study of early maritime history see Lane's "Venetian Ships and Ship-Builders of the Renaissance" (Baltimore, 1934). A more comprehensive study of the mariner's craft is E.G.R. Taylor, "The Haven-Finding Art: A History of Navigation from Odysseus to Captain Cook" (London, 1956), while David W. Waters of the Maritime Museum at Greenwich, England, has contributed a more limited account entitled "The Art of Navigation in England in Elizabethan and Early Stuart Times" (London, 1958). Perhaps the greatest feat of seamanship and navigation in the entire Age of Discovery was the voyage of Ferdinand Magellan around the world in the years 1519-1522. The narratives of Antonio Pigafetta, Maximilian of Transylvania, and Gaspar Correa are collected in "Magellan's Voyage Around the World: Three Contemporary Accounts", ed. with an introduction by Charles E. Nowell (Evanston, 1962). Charles McKew Parr presents a detailed study of the voyage and its leader in "Ferdinand Magellan, Circumnavigator" (New York, 1964), originally published in 1953 under the title "So Noble a Captain: The Life and Times of Ferdinand Magellan". The "Invention" of America Countless explorers, freebooters, adventurers, settlers, priests, and soldiers, drawn by the lure of the green lands, the gold, the slaves, the known and the unknown, followed in the wake of Columbus. The Spanish government attempted to regulate the exploration, conquest, and conversion of the peoples of this new world, who, far from having the immense power Europeans expected to find in Asia, were weak and largely ineffective against European firearms, swords, and horses. The tragic story of Columbus, who proved unable to control the greed and passion of the colonists he brought with him, or to hold the Spanish sovereigns to their pledged word to reward him with power, titles, and wealth for giving them a new world, is well told in Morison's works cited above. Among those who followed Columbus was another Italian, a Florentine named Amerigo Vespucci. It is to Vespucci that we owe the name of the hemisphere through the application of the word "America" to the lands in South America, which he coasted on a series of voyages, principally in the early years of the sixteenth century. Only later was the name extended to North America. Vespucci wrote several letters about those voyages, and a German cartographer, Martin Waldseemuller, decided Vespucci's role was great enough to warrant naming the land mass for him. The injustice of the attribution, particularly as applied to North America, has been vehemently expressed by all good "Columbians." Yet the name has stuck and the debate, not only about the name of the New World but about the veracity and accomplishments of Vespucci, goes on to this day. One of the most outspoken defenders of the achievements of Vespucci is German Arciniegas, whose "Amerigo and the New World: The Life and Times of Amerigo Vespucci", translated from the Spanish by Harriet de Onis (New York, 1955), gives the Florentine excessive credit for his achievements. (See Wilcomb E. Washburn's review of the book in the "William and Mary Quarterly", 3rd series, XIII (1956), pp. 102-106, and the exchange between Arciniegas and Washburn in the same volume, pp. 448-453.) Another defender of the honor of Vespucci is Edmundo O'Gorman, whose "The Invention of America: An Inquiry into the Historical Nature of the New World and the Meaning of Its History" (Bloomington, Ind., 1961) credits Vespucci, as does Arciniegas, with first conceiving of the new Atlantic world as a land mass of continental proportions, separate from Asia. The argument is both an historical and a semantic one. It is not clear what meaning phrases like "continent," "new world," or "terra firma" had at the time. The interested teacher may care to read Wilcomb E. Washburn, "The Meaning of 'Discovery' in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries," "American Historical Review", LXVIII (October 1962), pp. 1-21. England, France, and Spain in the New World The discovery of tantalizing bits of evidence which seem to support the belief of many that the English (and others) were exploiting the fishing grounds off Newfoundland prior to Columbus' discovery has made no less confusing the tangled history of early English exploration in the New World. The possibility of such voyages and their lack of relationship to the activities of the Spanish farther south illustrate the different mental picture with which the Europeans viewed the varied lands and resources in the Western Sea. One of the foremost students of early English voyages, David Beers Quinn of Liverpool University, discusses the matter briefly in "The New Found Land: The English Contribution to the Discovery of North America, An Address delivered at the Annual Meeting of the Associates of the John Carter Brown Library, May 14, 1964, together with a Catalogue of the Exhibition opened on that occasion" (Providence, R.I., 1965). The voyages of John and Sebastian Cabot, and of their predecessors who sailed from Bristol into the Western Ocean in the fifteenth century, are dealt with at much greater length by James A. Williamson in "The Cabot Voyages and Bristol Discovery under Henry VII" (Cambridge, England, 1962), which includes a section on "The Cartography of the Voyages" by R.A. Skelton as well as transcriptions of all the pertinent documents. As Williamson says in his Preface, "Cabot study is never finished"; he has, unfortunately, not pushed such study much farther than he brought it in his "The Voyages of the Cabots and the English Discovery of North America" (London, 1929). English exploration and colonization owe a profound debt to a diligent English preacher--no sailor himself--who collected and published accounts of voyages by navigators of all European nations and who urged his backward English associates, at court and in the marketplace, to pursue England's interest and (as he saw it) God's will overseas. The great English society named for Richard Hakluyt commemorates his name and continues his work. "The Original Writings and Correspondence of the Two Richard Hakluyts" has been edited in two volumes with an introduction and notes by E.G.R. Taylor, the distinguished English geographer, and published by the Hakluyt Society (London, 1935). A vital key to Hakluyt's thinking, and the English outlook in general, is his "Discourse of Western Planting," 1584, which is published in the collection. George Bruner Parks published "Richard Hakluyt and the English Voyages" (Special Publication No. 10 of the American Geographical Society, New York, 1928), a detailed study of Hakluyt's life and writings. A second, revised edition (New York, 1961), is available. The original 1589 edition of Hakluyt's "The Principall Navigations Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation" has been issued by the Hakluyt Society and the Peabody Museum of Salem in a photo-lithographic facsimile, with an introduction by David Beers Quinn and Raleigh Ashlin Skelton and a new index by Alison Quinn (Cambridge, England, 1965). The scholar and the general reader are now able to approach this seminal book in the history of English expansion with ease and confidence. The story of English expansion overseas has been dealt with by A.L. Rowse, Fellow of All Souls, Oxford University, in several works, among them "The Elizabethans and America" (New York, 1959), and "The Expansion of Elizabethan England" (New York, 1955). David Quinn has published a study of "Raleigh and the British Empire" (London, 1949). The voyages and explorations of the French explorers in the New World have rarely found a better expositor than the nineteenth-century Boston aristocrat who resolved, while still a student at Harvard, to write the history of the epic struggle between France and Great Britain for the North American continent. Parkman's "Pioneers of France in the New World" (Boston, 1865, and later revised editions), and "The Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth Century" (Boston, 1967, and later revised editions) tell the story with pungency and authority. The narratives of the early French explorers, from the predecessors of Jacques Cartier to Samuel de Champlain, were edited by the Canadian archivist H.P. Biggar and published in the early decades of this century. To cite but one example, Biggar edited "The Works of Samuel de Champlain" (7 vols., Toronto, 1922-1936). Edward G. Bourne, one of the most perceptive early students of discovery, published a two-volume account of "The Voyages and Explorations of Samuel de Champlain (1604-1616)" (New York, 1906). Morris Bishop wrote a lively biography of Champlain under the title "Champlain: The Life of Fortitude" (New York, 1948). Reuben Gold Thwaites, formerly of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, published "France in America, 1497-1763" (vol. 7 of the old American Nation Series, New York, 1905), but his greatest contribution was in editing the 73 volumes of "The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents: Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France, 1610-1791" (Cleveland, 1896-1901). France's enormous inland exploration effort, and the religious concern that accompanied it, are here documented at exhaustive length. Edna Kenton has selected and edited a one- volume edition of "The Jesuit Relations ..." (New York, 1954), from the 73 volumes published by Thwaites. The teacher should not overlook the eighteenth-century Jesuit missionary and historian, Pierre Francois Xavier de Charlevoix, whose "History and General Description of New France" was translated from the original edition and edited by John Gilmary Shea (6 vols., New York, 1900). The history of the early explorations is becoming increasingly a concern of professional anthropologists in their capacity as "ethno-historians." Bernard G. Hoffman's "Cabot to Cartier: Sources for a Historical Ethnography of Northeastern North America, 1497-1550" (Toronto, 1961), is a significant example. Hoffman's critical and analytical discussion of the cartographic evidence upon which nineteenth-century scholars built their fragile and often insubstantial theories, and his close reading of the descriptions of the Indians encountered by the first explorers, give an indication of the influence which an anthropological approach can have upon the writing of history. Another example of the sophisticated approach brought to bear on the historical problem of Indian-white relations in the period of exploration and settlement is Bruce Graham Trigger, "The Destruction of Huronia: A Study in Economic and Cultural Change, 1609-1650," "Transactions of the Royal Canadian Institute", XXXIII, Pt. 1 (October 1960). Archaeologists have further illuminated our knowledge of the earliest Indian-white contacts. Two studies on the Jesuit mission of Sainte-Marie among the Hurons, occupied from 1639 to 1649, may serve as examples. Kenneth E. Kidd's "The Excavation of Ste Marie I" (Toronto, 1949), was based on his wartime excavation of the site. Wilfrid and Elsie McLeod Jury's "Sainte-Marie among the Hurons" (Toronto, 1954), tells the story on the basis of a later examination of the site. The economic basis of French expansion has been dealt with by H.P. Biggar in his "Early Trading Companies of New France: A Contribution to the History of Commerce and Discovery in North America" (Toronto, 1901). Citizens of the United States sometimes overlook the great role of Spanish soldiers, priests, and explorers in inland exploration of the North American continent. The leading accounts of three of the most famous and significant explorations--those by Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, Hernando de Soto and Francisco Vasquez Coronado--appear in "Spanish Explorers in the Southern United States, 1528-1543", ed. Frederick W. Hodge and Theodore H. Lewis ([Original Narratives of Early American History Series] New York, 1907). In perhaps no other field can original narratives be as effective both for learning and for teaching purposes as in the field of exploration and discovery. An excellent general account of Spanish exploration and discovery is Woodbury Lowery, "The Spanish Settlements Within the Present Limits of the United States, 1513-1561" (New York, 1901; reprint, 1959). A recent publication of The History of Human Society Series, under the general editorship of J.H. Plumb, is "The Spanish Seaborne Empire" by J.H. Parry (London and New York, 1966). In 1965 the state of Arizona placed a statue of Father Eusebio Francisco Kino in Statuary Hall at the national Capitol. Prior to his death in 1711, this German-Italian Jesuit played a major role in southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. Not only did Kino help explore, missionize, and settle the area of southern Arizona known as Pimeria Alta, but he was instrumental in laying the groundwork for the string of eighteenth-century missions which still lace the California coast. Those missions were actually established by others, notably by the Franciscan Junipero Serra, after Kino's order had been expelled from America. An account of Serra, written by a fellow Franciscan in a popular form, is Omer Englebert's "The Last of the Conquistadors, Junipero Serra (1713-1784)", translated from the French by Katherine Woods (New York, 1956). Two older but still useful books by authorities in the field of Spanish exploration and settlement in America are Herbert E. Bolton, "The Spanish Borderlands: A Chronicle of Old Florida and the Southwest" (New Haven, 1921), and Edward G. Bourne, "Spain in America, 1450-1580" (New York, 1904; reprint, 1962). Maps and Mapmakers Literature pertaining to the state of geographical knowledge at the dawn of the Age of Discovery is extensive. The best short account is George H.T. Kimble, "Geography in the Middle Ages" (London, 1938). A standard work in greater detail is Charles Raymond Beazley, "The Dawn of Modern Geography: A History of Exploration and Geographical Science" (3 vols., Oxford, 1896-1906; reprint: New York, 1949). John Kirtland Wright's pioneering monograph concerning "The Geographical Lore of the Time of the Crusades: A Study in the History of Medieval Science and Tradition in Western Europe", published in 1925 by the American Geographical Society as No. 15 in its Research Series, was republished in 1965 with revisions by the author. Large libraries generally will possess the Swedish scholar A.E. Nordenskiold's "Facsimile-Atlas to the Early History of Cartography" (Stockholm, 1889), and his "Periplus: An Essay on the Early History of Charts and Sailing-Directions" (Stockholm, 1897), which contain reproductions of most of the significant early maps. An important work first published in London and Paris in 1892, at the time of the celebration of the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America, is Henry Harrisse, "The Discovery of North America: A Critical, Documentary, and Historic Investigation. With An Essay on the Early Cartography of the New World, including Descriptions of Two Hundred and Fifty Maps or Globes existing or lost, constructed before the year 1536" (reprint: Amsterdam, 1961). Fully illustrated accounts of the map maker's art appear in R.A. Skelton's "Explorers' Maps: Chapters in the Cartographic Record of Geographical Discovery" (London, 1958), in Gerald R. Crone, "Maps and Their Makers: An Introduction to the History of Cartography" (London, 1953), in Lloyd A. Brown, "The Story of Maps" (Boston, 1949), and in R.V. Tooley, "Maps and Map-Makers" (London, 1949; rev. ed., New York: Bonanza Books, 1961). General Accounts General works on the Age of Discovery abound, although they must be used with caution since they do not always achieve the depth and perception reached by some of the specific works listed above. An adequate general study is John Bartlet Brebner, "The Explorers of North America, 1492-1806" (New York, 1933; reprint: New York, 1955). Boies Penrose, "Travel and Discovery in the Renaissance. 1420-1620" (Cambridge, Mass., 1955), now available in paperback, is a massively detailed survey of the literature. Charles E. Nowell, "The Great Discoveries and the First Colonial Empires" (Ithaca, New York, 1954), in paperback, is one of the brief essays in the Development of Western Civilization Series designed as a text for the history survey course at Cornell University. Nowell covers in extremely brief compass (150 pages) the story of the exploration of the whole globe. Other surveys include the English geographer J.N.L. Baker's "A History of Geographical Discovery and Exploration" (London, 1937; rev. ed., 1948); Arthur P. Newton, ed., "The Great Age of Discovery" (London, 1932), which contains chapters by some of the most eminent scholars in the field of early explorations: E.G.R. Taylor, J.A. Williamson, Edgar Prestage, Herbert J. Wood, and others; and V.T. Harlow, ed., "Voyages of the Great Pioneers" (London, 1929). Europeans in Asia Despite their quest for Asia, the European explorers who followed Columbus found themselves occupied with the new lands of America. Nonetheless, the lure of Asia persisted. The efforts of the Portuguese, Spaniards, and, later, the French, Dutch, and English, to reach the great Oriental kingdoms by sailing eastward around Africa persisted unabated even while the exploration of the New World continued. The honor of first reaching India by sailing around Africa belongs to Vasco da Gama, and his arrival in India in 1498 heralded the great era of Portuguese expansion and hegemony in the Far East. Da Gama approached the kingdoms of Asia cautiously and politely. It was only later that the Portuguese realized their ability to conquer as well as trade in the populous kingdoms of the Orient. Da Gama was followed by more Portuguese ships--men of war and vessels of trade--and by captains like Afonso de Albuquerque. Soon Portuguese power had spread throughout the seas of Indian and the western Pacific. An excellent account of the story is Edgar Prestage, "The Portuguese Pioneers" (London, 1933). An extremely brief but useful account is Charles R. Boxer's "Four Centuries of Portuguese Expansion, 1415-1825: A Succinct Survey" (Johannesburg, 1961). The tangled web of relationships and motives that induced Portuguese expansion to the East is illuminated in "The Quest for Eastern Christians: Travels and Rumor in the Age of Discovery", by Francis M. Rogers (Minneapolis, 1962). Dutch exploration and expansion into both the Pacific and the Atlantic has, until recently, been scantily treated in English. Fortunately, one of the great historians of European overseas expansion, Charles R. Boxer of King's College, London University, recently published "The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600-1800" (New York, 1965). No historian has a better grasp than does Boxer of the languages and cultures of the various peoples, East and West, involved in the process of European expansion overseas. Boxer's study of the Dutch in their relations with Asia may be supplemented by a reading of George Masselman, "The Cradle of Colonialism" (New Haven, 1963), which gives a particularly good account of the commercial aspects of Dutch colonialism in Asia. The man who inspired much of the Dutch effort, Jan Huyghen van Linschoten, opened the door to the Portuguese East with his "Itinerario"; published between 1579 and 1592, these five thick volumes described the riches, customs and wonders of the East. A modern English edition of the "Itinerario", under the title "The Voyage of John Huyghen van Linschoten to the East Indies" (2 vols., London, 1885), was published by the Hakluyt Society. Designed to publish original accounts of Dutch voyages and established in 1908, the Dutch counterpart to the Hakluyt Society fittingly carries the name Linschoten. Charles McKew Parr has authored a recent study of this voyage: "Jan van Linschoten: The Dutch Marco Polo" (New York, 1964). In the seventeenth century England and France followed the Portuguese and Dutch into the Indian Ocean and to the shores of the great Oriental kingdoms which remained the constant goal of European expansion. Both latecomers were concerned more with trade and conquest than with exploration and discovery, which tasks had largely been performed by their predecessors. Through commercial enterprises (each had its own East India Company), both nations established footholds in the East which were later expanded to become enclaves of national control. The map of Asia was on its way to being filled with European colors. Although the attention of students of the Age of Discovery is normally reserved for overseas activities, it is important to remember that the expansion of Europe was accomplished by land as well as by sea, albeit through more prosaic and less dramatic technical means. The story of this movement overland is primarily the story of the extension of the Russian Empire eastward through Siberia to the Pacific and beyond to Alaska and California. The great period of Russian expansion--which made her the world's largest land power--took place from the late sixteenth through the early nineteenth centuries, even as Great Britain was establishing her preeminence as the world's foremost sea power. Yuri Semyonov (or Semenov, as the approved Library of Congress transliteration of the Russian name has it) recounts "The Conquest of Siberia", originally published in German in 1937 and twice translated into English, first E.W. Dickes (London, 1944), and in J.R. Foster's revised and expanded edition with a bibliography, "Siberia: Its Conquest and Development" (Baltimore, 1963). An older account which emphasizes Russian expansion in the Pacific Ocean following the conquest of Siberia is Frank Alfred Golder's "Russian Expansion on the Pacific, 1641-1850" (Cleveland, 1914). Two newer studies of Russian penetration to the north and to the east are Terence Armstrong, "Russian Settlement in the North" (Cambridge, England, 1965), and George Alexander Lensen, "The Russian Push toward Japan: Russo-Japanese Relations, 1697-1875" (Princeton, 1959). The impact of the Asian world upon Europe is discussed in exhaustive and fascinating detail by Donald F. Lach of the University of Chicago in "The Century of Discovery", vol. 1 of "Asia in the Making of Europe" (2 vols., Chicago, 1965). Lach deals not only with the process of exploration, trade, and religious conversion, but most particularly with the intellectual effects which the knowledge of the East had upon Europe. The impact of the Orient upon Europe was one of revolutionary consequence, affecting Western religion, thought, and action. It forced upon the West a re-examination of its cultural assumptions and dealt body blows to the comfortable beliefs with which the Western explorers departed Europe. At the same time it laid the basis for a vast increase in scientific knowledge about the earth and the animals, plants, and men who inhabited it. An example of the effect of the East-West relationship is revealed in "The Travels and Controversies of Friar Domingo Navarrete, 1618-1686", ed. J.S. Cummins (2 vols., Cambridge, England, 1962). Navarrete, a Dominican priest, helped to precipitate the controversy over the acceptability--within the context of Christian theory--of the Chinese Rites, to which the Jesuits in China had accommodated themselves. The greatest figure among the Jesuits in China, the Italian Matteo Ricci, is the subject of a popular account by Vincent Cronin, "The Wise Man from the West" (New York, 1955). Ricci's journals have been translated by Louis J. Gallagher, S.J. and published as "China in the Sixteenth Century: The Journals of Matthew Ricci: 1583-1610" (New York, 1953). The relationship between the Orient and the West involves a vast and specialized literature which is beyond the scope of this essay to record, but important examples include Geoffrey Francis Hudson, "Europe and China: A Survey of their Relations from the Earliest Times to 1800" (London, 1931), George B. Sansom, "The Western World and Japan: A Study in the Interaction of European and Asiatic Cultures" (New York, 1950), and Charles R. Boxer, "Race Relations in the Portuguese Colonial Empire, 1415-1825" (Oxford, 1963). Boxer is the author of other learned, scholarly, and imaginative works such as "The Christian Century in Japan, 1549-1650" (Berkeley, 1951). Exploration of the Pacific The towering figure in recording the history of exploration in the wider reaches of the Pacific is John C. Beaglehole, research professor at Victoria University in Wellington, New Zealand. Beaglehole has written a standard account of "The Exploration of The Pacific" (London, 1934), which is still a model of concise statement and thorough analysis. In discussing a famous mid-seventeenth century Dutch explorer, Beaglehole has contributed "The Place of Tasman's Voyage in History" to "Abel Janszoon Tasman and the Discovery of New Zealand" (Wellington, 1942). Beaglehole is presently producing for the Hakluyt Society an account of the government-supported, late eighteenth-century scientific voyages of Captain James Cook, which finally settled many of the uncertainties concerning the nature and bounds of the Pacific. Two volumes of the Society's edition of "The Journals of Captain James Cook and his Voyages of Discovery", edited by Beaglehole, have appeared: vol. 1, "The Voyage of the 'Endeavour', 1768-1771" (Cambridge, England, 1955), and vol. 2, "The Voyage of the 'Resolution' and 'Adventure', 1772-1775" (Cambridge, England, 1961). The promised fourth volume will contain a series of essays on particular aspects of Cook's life and achievement and on the scientific results of the voyages. Teachers may find the following general accounts of exploration in the Pacific helpful: Christopher Lloyd, "Pacific Horizons: The Explorations of the Pacific before Captain Cook" (London, 1946), and William Parker Morrell, "Britain in the Pacific Islands" (Oxford, 1960). The gradual awareness of the geography of the Pacific by Europeans has been dealt with in scholarly detail by Lawrence G. Wroth, "The Early Cartography of the Pacific," in "The Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America", XXXVIII (1944), pp. 83-268, and, in even greater detail, by Henry R. Wagner in "The Cartography of the Northwest Coast of America to the Year 1800" (2 vols., Berkeley, 1937). Pacific exploration, particularly in the eighteenth century, differed from Atlantic exploration in many ways. Its methods were different as were its goals and consequences. The ships and equipment were more sophisticated, the concerns of the explorers more scientific, and the intellectual consequences for the advancement of knowledge about the earth's surface and of its inhabitants more significant. "The Intellectual Assumptions and Consequences of Geographical Exploration in the Pacific" are discussed by Wilcomb E. Washburn in a forthcoming chapter of "Explorations of the Pacific Basin", ed. Herman R. Friis, scheduled for publication by the American Geographical Society during the winter of 1966-1967. The impact of the Pacific explorations upon European art is brilliantly analyzed by the Australian art historian Bernard Smith in "European Vision and the South Pacific, 1768-1850: A Study in the History of Art and Ideas" (Oxford, 1960). Smith's study is broadly conceived and discusses the literary effects of Pacific discovery, particularly as they influenced the development of the idea of the "noble savage," a concept that permeated travel accounts and literature, as well as art. The difficulty of determining the historical truth or falsity of this single concept exemplifies the problems raised by the Age of Discovery, problems that cannot be resolved by simple references to the present-day reader's assumptions about human nature and historical reality. When we know what the terms "noble savage" and "discovery of America" really mean and represent, we shall have attained an understanding of the events of the great Age of Discovery that is still far beyond our grasp. The uncertainties, the controversies, and the confusion that emerge from this period of conflicting cultures, conflicting interests, and conflicting facts give its study a special fascination and a peculiar difficulty. Both novice and scholar should tread cautiously and humbly in this vineyard. References (This bibliography includes only those sources available in English.) Arciniegas, German. "Amerigo and the New World: The Life and Times of Amerigo Vespucci". trans. Harriet de Onis. New York: Knopf, 1955. Armstrong, Terence. "Russian Settlement in the North". Cambridge, England: University Press, 1965. Baker, J.N.L. "A History of Geographical Discovery and Exploration". London: George G. Harrap, 1937; rev. ed. 1948. Beaglehole, John C. "The Exploration of the Pacific". London: A.& C. Black, 1934. ----- (ed.). "The Journals of Captain James Cook and his Voyages of Discovery", Vol. I: "The Voyage of the 'Endeavor', 1768-1771", Vol. II: "The Voyage of the 'Resolution' and 'Adventure', 1772-1775". Cambridge, England: Hakluyt Society, 1955-1961. -----. "The Place of Tasman's Voyage in History," in Abel Janszoon Tasman. "Abel Janszoon Tasman and the Discovery of New Zealand". Wellington: Department of Internal Affairs, 1942. Beazley, Charles Raymond. "The Dawn of Modern Geography: A History of Exploration and Geographical Science". 3 vols. Oxford and London: John Murray and Henry Frowde, 1896-1906. (Reprint: New York: Peter Smith, 1949.) Biggar, H.P. "The Early Trading Companies of New France: A Contribution to the History of Commerce and Discovery in North America". Toronto: University of Toronto Library, 1901. ----- (ed.). "The Works of Samuel de Champlain". 7 vols. Toronto: Champlain Society, 1922-1936. Bishop, Morris. "Champlain: The Life of Fortitude". New York: Knopf, 1948. Bolton, Herbert E. "The Spanish Borderlands: A Chronicle of Old Florida and the Southwest". New Haven: Yale University Press, 1921. Bourne, Edward G. "Spain in America, 1450-1580". New York: Harper, 1904. (Reprint, with new introduction and supplementary bibliography by Benjamin Keen. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1962.) ----- (ed.). "The Voyages and Explorations of Samuel de Champlain (1604-1616)". New York: A.S. Barnes, 1906. Boxer, Charles R. "The Christian Century in Japan, 1549-1650". Berkeley: University of California Press, 1951. -----. "The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600-1800". New York: Knopf, 1965. -----. "Four Centuries of Portuguese Expansion, 1415-1825: A Succinct Survey". Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1961. -----. "Race Relations in the Portuguese Colonial Empire, 1415-1825". Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963. Brebner, John Bartlet. "The Explorers of North America, 1492-1806". New York: Macmillan, 1933. (Reprint: New York: Doubleday, 1955.) Brown, Lloyd A. "The Story of Maps". Boston: Little, Brown, 1949. Casas, Bartolome de Las. "The Tears of the Indians: Being An Historical and True Account of the Cruel Massacres and Slaughters of Above Twenty Millions of Innocent People". Trans. of "Brief Relation of the Destruction of the Indies" (1552) by John Phillips (London: 1656). Stanford, Calif.: Academie Reprints, n.d. Charlevoix, Pierre Francois Xavier de. "History and General Description of New France", trans. and ed. from the original edition by John Gilmary Shea. 6 vols. New York: Francis P. Harper, 1900. Cipolla, Carlo M. "Guns and Sails in the Early Phase of European Expansion, 1400-1700". London: Collins, 1965. Crone, Gerald R. "Maps and Their Makers: An Introduction to the History of Cartography". London: Hutchinson's Universal Library, 1953. Cronin, Vincent. "The Wise Man from the West". New York: Dutton, 1955. Cummins, J.S. (ed.). "The Travels and Controversies of Friar Domingo Navarrete, 1618-1686". 2 vols. Cambridge, England: Hakluyt Society, 1962. Dawson, Christopher (ed.). "The Mongol Mission: Narratives and Letters of the Franciscan Missionaries in Mongolia and China in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries". New York: Sheed and Ward, 1955. Diffie, Bailey W. "Prelude to Empire: Portugal Overseas before Henry the Navigator". Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1960. Englebert, Omer. "The Last of the Conquistadors: Junipero Serra (1713-1784)", trans. Katherine Woods. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1956. Golder, Frank Alfred. "Russian Expansion on the Pacific, 1641-1850: An Account of the Earliest and Later Expeditions Made by the Russians Along the Pacific Coast of Asia and North America: including some Related Expeditions to the Arctic Regions". Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark, 1914. (Reprint: Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1960.) Hakluyt, Richard (comp.). "The Principall Navigations Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation". Photo-lithographic facsimile of 1589 ed. Intro. by David Beers Quinn and Raleigh Ashlin Skelton with a new index by Alison Quinn. Cambridge, England: University Press for the Hakluyt Society and the Peabody Museum of Salem, 1965. Harlow, V.T. (ed.). "Voyages of the Great Pioneers". London: Oxford University Press, 1929. Harrisse, Henry. "The Discovery of North America: A Critical, Documentary, and Historic Investigation. With An Essay on the Early Cartography of the New World, including Descriptions of Two Hundred and Fifty Maps or Globes existing or lost, constructed before the year 1536". London: H. Stevens, 1892. (Reprint: Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1961.) Hart, Henry H. "Sea Road to the Indies: An Account of the Voyages and Exploits of the Portuguese Navigators, together with the Life and Times of the Dom Vasco da Gama, Capitao- Mor, Viceroy of India and Count of Vidigueira". New York: Macmillan, 1950. Hodge, Frederick W. and Theodore H. Lewis (eds.). "Spanish Explorers in the Southern United States, 1528-1543". New York: Scribner, 1907. (Original Narratives of Early American History Series.) Hoffman, Bernard G. "Cabot to Cartier: Sources for a Historical Ethnography of Northeastern North America, 1497-1550". Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1961. Hourani, George F. "Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval Times". Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1951. Hudson, Geoffrey Francis. "Europe and China: A Survey of their Relations from the Earliest Times to 1800". London: Edward Arnold, 1931. Ingstad, Helge. "Vinland Ruins Prove Vikings Found the New World," "National Geographic Magazine", CXXVI (November 1964), pp. 708-734. Jones, Gwyn. "The Norse Atlantic Saga: Being the Norse Voyages of Discovery and Settlement to Iceland, Greenland, America". London: Oxford University Press, 1964. Jury, Wilfrid and Elsie McLeod Jury. "Sainte-Marie among the Hurons". Toronto: Oxford, 1954. Keen, Benjamin (ed.). "The Life of The Admiral Christopher Columbus by his Son Ferdinand". New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1959. Kidd, Kenneth E. "The Excavation of Ste Marie I". Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1949. Kimble, George H.T. "Geography in the Middle Ages". London: Methuen, 1938. Lach, Donald F. "The Century of Discovery", vol. 1 of "Asia in the Making of Europe". 2 vols. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1965. Lane, Frederic C. "The Economic Meaning of the Invention of the Compass," "American Historical Review", LXVIII (April 1963), pp. 605-617. -----. "Venetian Ships and Ship-Builders of the Renaissance". Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1934. Lensen, George Alexander. "The Russian Push toward Japan: Russo- Japanese Relations, 1697-1875". Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1959. Leon-Portilla, Miguel (ed.). "The Broken Spears: The Aztec account of the Conquest of Mexico". Boston: Beacon Press, 1962. Linschoten, Jan Huyghen van. "The Voyage of John Huyghen van Linschoten to the East Indies". Trans. of the "Itinerario" (1579-1592), ed. Arthur Coke Burnell and P.A. Tiele. London: Hakluyt Society, 1885. Lloyd, Christopher. "Pacific Horizons: The Explorations of the Pacific before Captain Cook". London: G. Allen and Unwin, 1946. Lowery, Woodbury. "The Spanish Settlements within the Present Limits of the United States, 1513-1561". New York: G.P. Putnam, 1901. (Reprint: New York: Russell & Russell, 1959.) Masselman, George. "The Cradle of Colonialism". New Haven and London: University Press, 1963. Morison, Samuel Eliot. "Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Christopher Columbus". Boston: Little, Brown, 1942. -----. "Christopher Columbus, Mariner". Boston: Little, Brown, 1955. ----- (ed.). "Journals and Other Documents on the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus". New York: Limited Editions Club, 1963. -----. "Portuguese Voyages to america in the Fifteenth Century". Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1940. (Reprint: Octagon Books, 1965.) ----- and Mauricio Obregon. "The Caribbean as Columbus Saw It". Boston: Little, Brown, 1964. Morrell, William Parker. "Britain in the Pacific Islands". Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1960. Mowat, Farley. "Westviking: The Ancient Norse in Greenland and North America". Boston: Little, Brown, 1965. Newton, Arthur P. (ed.). "The Great Age of Discovery". London: University of London Press, 1932. Nordenskiold, A.E. "Facsimile-Atlas to the Early History of Cartography". Stockholm: P.A. Norstedt, 1889. (Reprint: New York: Kraus Reprint Corp., 1961.) -----. "Periplus: An Essay on the Early History of Charts and Sailing-Directions". Stockholm: P.A. Norstedt, 1897. Nowell, Charles E. "The Great Discoveries and the First Colonial Empires". Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1954. ----- (ed.). "Magellan's Voyage Around the World: Three Contemporary Accounts". Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1962. O'Gorman, Edmundo. "The Invention of America: An Inquiry into the Historical Nature of the New World and the Meaning of Its History". Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1961. Oleson, Tryggvi J. "Early Voyages and Northern Approaches, 1000-1632". London: Oxford University Press, 1964. (Canadian Centenary Series.) Olson, Julius E. and Edward Gaylord Bourne (eds.). "The Northmen, Columbus, and Cabot: 985-1503". New York: Scribner, 1906. (Original Narratives of Early American History Series.) Parkman, Francis. "The Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth Century". 1st ed. Boston: Little, Brown, 1867. -----. "Pioneers of France in the New World". 1st ed. Boston: Little, Brown, 1865. Parks, George Bruner. "Richard Hakluyt and the English Voyages". New York: American Geographical Society, 1928; 2nd ed., New York: Frederick Ungar, 1961. Parr, Charles McKew. "Ferdinand Magellan, Circumnavigator". New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1964. -----. "Jan van Linschoten: The Dutch Marco Polo". New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1964. Parry, J.H. "The Age of Reconnaissance". Cleveland: World Publishing Co., 1963. (Reprint: New York: Mentor Books, 1965.) -----. "The Spanish Seaborne Empire". London: Hutchinson, 1966; also New York: Knopf, 1966. Penrose, Boies. "Travel and Discovery in the Renaissance, 1420-1620". Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1955. (Reprint: New York: Atheneum, 1962.) Prescott, William. "History of the Conquest of Mexico". 1st ed. New York: Harper, 1843. -----. "History of the Conquest of Peru". 1st ed. New York: Harper, 1847. Prestage, Edgar. "The Portuguese Pioneers". London: A.& C. Black, 1933. Quinn, David Beers. "The New Found Land: The English Contribution to the Discovery of North America, An Address delivered at the Annual Meeting of the Associates of the John Carter Brown Library, May 14, 1964, together with a Catalogue of the Exhibition opened on that occasion". Providence, R.I.: The Associates of the John Carter Brown Library, 1965. -----. "Raleigh and the British Empire". New York: Macmillan, 1949. Ricci, Matteo. "China in the Sixteenth Century: The Journals of Matthew Ricci: 1583-1610", trans. Louis J. Gallagher. New York: Random House, 1953. Rogers, Francis M. "The Quest for Eastern Christians: Travels and Rumor in the Age of Discovery". Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1962. Rowse, A.L. "The Elizabethans and America". New York: Harper, 1959. -----. "The Expansion of Elizabethan England". New York: St. Martin's Press, 1955. Sansom, George B. "The Western World and Japan: A Study in the Interaction of European and Asiatic Cultures". New York: Knopf, 1950. Semenov, Urii Nikolaevich. "The Conquest of Siberia: An Epic of Human Passions". Trans. E.W. Dickes. London: George Routledge & Sons, 1944. -----. "Siberia: Its Conquest and Development". Trans. J.R. Foster. Baltimore: Helicon Press, 1963. Skelton, Raleigh Ashlin. "Explorers' Maps: Chapters in the Cartographic Record of Geographical Discovery". London: Routledge & Paul, 1958. -----. et al. "The Vinland Map and Tartar Relation". New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1965. Smith, Bernard. "European Vision and the South Pacific, 1768-1850: A Study in the History of Art and Ideas". Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960. Tarn, William W. "The Greeks in Bactria and India". 2nd ed. Cambridge, England: University Press, 1951. Taylor, E.G.R. "The Haven-Finding Art: A History of Navigation from Odysseus to Captain Cook". London: Hollis and Carter, 1956; also New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1957. ----- (ed.). "The Original Writings and Correspondence of the Two Richard Hakluyts". London: Hakluyt Society, 1935. Thwaites, Reuben Gold (ed.). "The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents: Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France, 1610-1791". [The original French, Latin, and Italian texts, with England translations and notes.] 73 vols. Cleveland: 1896-1901. (Reprint: New York: Pageant Book Co., 1959.) ----- (ed.). "The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents: Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in North America (1610-1791)". Selected and ed. by Edna Kenton. New York: Vanguard Press, 1954. Tooley, R.V. "Maps and Map-Makers". London: B.T. Batsford, 1949. (Reprint: New York: Bonanza Books, 1961.) Trigger, Bruce Graham. "The Destruction of Huronia: A Study in Economic and Cultural Change, 1609-1650," "Transactions of the Royal Canadian Institute", XXXIII, Pt. 1 (October 1960). Vigneras, L.A. (ed.). "The Journal of Christopher Columbus". New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1960. Wagner, Henry R. "The Cartography of the Northwest Coast of America to the Year 1800". Berkeley: University of California Press, 1937. Washburn, Wilcomb E. "The Intellectual Assumptions and Consequences of Geographical Exploration in the Pacific," in Herman R. Friis (ed.). "Explorations of the Pacific Basin". New York: American Geographical Society, scheduled for publication during the winter of 1966-1967. -----. "Japan on Early European Maps," "Pacific Historical Review", XXI (August 1952), pp. 221-236. -----. "The Meaning of 'Discovery' in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries," "American Historical Review", LXVIII (October 1962), pp. 1-21. Waters, David W. "The Art of Navigation in England in Elizabethan and Early Stuart Times". New Haven: Yale University Press, 1958. Williamson, James A. "The Cabot Voyages and Bristol Discovery under Henry VII". Cambridge, England: University Press for the Hakluyt Society, 1962. -----. "The Voyages of the Cabots and the English Discovery of North America". London: Argonaut Press, 1929. Wright, John Kirtland. "The Geographical Lore of the Time of the Crusades: A Study in the History of Medieval Science and Tradition in Wester Europe". New York: American Geographical Society, 1925; 2nd ed., New York: Dover Publications, 1965. Wroth, Lawrence C. "The Early Cartography of the Pacific," "The Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America", XXXVIII (1944), pp. 83-268. Yule, Colonel Sir Henry. "Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China". 2nd ed. rev. by Henri Cordier. 4 vols. London: Hakluyt Society, 1913-1916. Reprint permission granted by author.