Catalog accompanying the exhibit, "El Camino Real: Un Sendero
Historico"
 
Developed by the Camino Real Project in cooperation with the
Latin American Institute, University of New Mexico, with generous
support from the National Endowment for the Humanities
 
The following is a list of captions replicated from each of the
36 panels of the exhibit.
 
Un Sendero Historico
	During the colonial years, New Mexico was tied to the
outside world by a single thoroughfare that descended the Rio
Grande valley from Santa Fe, dropped through the natural gate at
El Paso, and wended its way via the provinces of the old
Viceroyalty of New Spain to Mexico city, twelve hundred miles to
the south.
	This artery of commerce and travel was known as El Camino
Real, which meant the Royal Road, or King's Highway.  Actually
the term was applied to all main government roads both in Spain
and in the New World colonies.  Informally, New Mexico's Camino
Real was known as 'the road to the interior', el camino de tierra
adentro, because the frontier was regarded as the interior
country.
	Of the great highways leading north, this was the oldest,
having been extended by segments throughout the 16th century. 
For a time it also enjoyed the distinction of being the longest
road in North America.
	Parts of the Camino Real had their earliest beginnings as
Indian trails.  Later, sections of the route were traversed by
Spanish conquistadors.  Finally, with the coming of Juan de
Onate's expedition in 1598, the full length of the trail was
defined.  During the subsequent 300 years it witnessed
increasingly varied traffic as quantities of trade goods and
representatives of different cultures travelled it, bringing with
them currents of change which would forever alter the face of
this land.
	Largely forgotten in modern times, New Mexico's Camino Real
needs now to be recognized and valued as a richly informative
cultural and historic resource.
	This is its story.
 
	The discovery of the "New World" by Christopher Columbus in
1492 began an historic era of exploration, conquest, and
exploitation.
	Although he was an Italian from Genoa, his expedition set
forth in the name of Spain, as the only receptive ears he could
find in his search for a patron were the monarchs of Spain:
Ferdinand and Isabella.
	Technically speaking the venture was a failure, for
Columbus' goal of reaching the Orient by crossing the Atlantic
did not account for the great obstacle in his westward path: The
Americas.
	The greatest winner of Columbus' discovery of America was
the Spanish Crown, whose involvement in the New World would
create and support a vast empire for centuries to come.
	After over two months at sea, Columbus' three-ship
expedition sighted land on October 12, 1492.  The island of San
Salvador in the Bahamas is commonly regarded as the first land
sighted by Columbus' crew.
	Columbus returned the following year with seventeen ships
and well over a thousand Spanish settlers.
	The "Admiral of the High Seas" would return to the New World
twice more, but before this fourth and final crossing he was
stripped of his title of Viceroy of the Indies for his inability
to properly administer the new Spanish territories.
	By 1496, Santo Domingo (modern capital of the Dominican
Republic) was established as the first municipality in the New
World.  From this island base, and later Havana and Santiago de
Cuba, the Spaniards would proceed to explore the mainland of
South and Central America.
	In November of 1518, Hernan Cortes sailed from the port of
Santiago de Cuba to carry out the conquest of Mexico.
	In the spring of 1519, a runner reported to the Emperor
Moctezuma that 'two floating mountains' and strangely dressed men
had appeared on the coast of Mexico.
	Attracted by bountiful gifts sent by the Aztec emperor,
Moctezuma--gifts meant to appease the Spaniards and turn them
back--Cortes and his six-hundred men stayed on to found the port
of La Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz.
	From there an expedition marched on the highland heart of
the Aztec Empire, Tenochtitlan, the site of present day Mexico
City.
	At first forced to retreat, Cortes returned later to the
capital with numerous Spanish reinforcements and Indian allies
and, after a five-month siege, defeated the new Aztec leader
Cuahtemoc.
	Thus, the stage was set for the establishment of the Vice-
royalty of New Spain.
 
A Day of Marvels
	Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca was appointed to the Panfilo de
Narvaez expedition in 1527, which came to a disastrous end in
Florida.  Cabeza de Vaca and three companions, the only
survivors, found their way back to Mexico after eight harrowing
years, having traversed the unknown wilds of Florida, Texas, and
northernmost Mexico.
	The marvelous tales of Cabeza de Vaca's wanderings caused
much excitement.  The Spaniards were spurred on to new conquest. 
There! just over the next horizon! they were sure, lay more
wealth and more exotic civilizations waiting to be conquered.
	In 1540, Francisco Vasquez de Coronado set off for Arizona,
accompanied by 292 men, 1300 Indian allies, several friars, 1,000
horses, 600 pack animals and supplies.  Coronado's men were the
first to see the Grand Canyon, to explore Hopiland, and to
penetrate as far east as Kansas.
	Coronado's expedition spent the winter of 1541-42 near
present-day Bernalillo south of the great 1,200 room pueblo of
Kuaua.  Soon their arrogant conquerors' assumptions brought them
into armed conflict with the Indians.
	The Coronado expedition returned to Mexico, their hopes
shattered, for they had entered 'the great wilderness' and
'seeing nothing were down-hearted.'
	By the mid-1570's, the rich mining district of Parral in
southern Chihuahua had been settled and served as a staging area
for future explorations.
	In Santa Barbara in 1581 Fr. Agustin Rodriguez heard of an
advanced civilization to the north.  Given official permission to
evangelize, he set off in 1581 with a small party under the
command of Captain Francisco Sanchez Chamuscado.  The party
reached the vicinity of Socorro in August and for the next five
months explored the Rio Grande pueblos.  Leaving behind two
priests to continue religious conversion, the main party returned
in 1582.
	The Spaniard Antonio de Espejo, caught up in the excitement
caused by the returning Chamuscado-Rodriguez expedition, decided
to personally underwrite the costs of an expedition.  In 1582, he
led a small group to New Mexico, only to learn that the friars he
had hoped to succor had been killed.  The reports, written by
Espejo, and by expedition member Diego Perez de Lujan upon their
return to Mexico, added to a growing fund of information about
the pueblo people of New Mexico.
	In 1590, the bold Portuguese adventurer, Gaspar Castano de
Sosa, persuaded the entire population of the failing mining camp
of Almaden (near Monclova, Coahuila) to follow him to this
coveted new land which, he promised, would legally become theirs. 
The Viceroy, hearing of Sosa's unauthorized departure, sent
Captain Juan Morlete in pursuit.  Morlete caught up with Sosa at
Santo Domingo Pueblo and marched his party back to Mexico,
returning southward along the Rio Grande.  The first wheeled
vehicles to pass over this section of the Camino Real left tracks
which were seen eight years later by Juan de Onate.
 
Don Juan de Onate, Colonizer of New Mexico
	Philip II, King of Spain, instructed the Viceroy of Mexico
to find a man to pacify and colonize New Mexico.
	In 1595, Don Juan de Onate was officially granted the right
to conquer New Mexico.  Onate, scion of a wealthy family and a
seasoned soldier, hoped to discover new wealth and to enjoy a
brilliant future as its governor.
	In the spring of 1598, Onate was finally able to get his
caravan under way, leading the way for 129 men--many with their
families and servants--and a small group of Franciscan friars, as
well as 84 heavily loaded carts and vast herds of livestock--
sheep, goats, cattle, horses.
	Blazing a new route scouted by his nephew, Vicente de
Zaldivar, the expedition struggled northward across the
Chihuahuan desert.
	In one place, the expedition, suffering from great thirst,
was providentially saved with a miraculous downpour "so heavy
that very large pools were formed and more than seven thousand
head of cattle and mares of all kinds drank."
	The exhausted travelers finally reached the Rio Grande and
on April 30th Onate took formal possession of New Mexico, saying:
 
     "I claim these lands without limitations, including the
     mountains, the rivers, valleys, meadows, pastures, and
     waters ... pueblos, cities, towns, castles ... in the
     name of the King."
 
	Passing through the narrows near San Felipe Pueblo, Governor
Onate arrived at the Pueblo of Santo Domingo and, on July 7, held
a council with the Indians of the surrounding country.  In a
ceremony they must have poorly understood, the native leaders
swore allegiance to the Spanish Crown and Church.
	Later expedition member Gaspar de Villagra wrote an epic
poem about the conquest.
	When Onate and his men entered the first villages of the
Pueblo Indians, some fled at his approach while others
demonstrated a restrained friendliness.  At the adobe community
of Teypama, the headman provided the hungry newcomers with an
abundance of corn.  Onate christened the place, Socorro, in
gratitude for the aid he had received.
	By July 11 the Governor and his companions had reached the
Tewa-speaking pueblo of San Juan as they renamed it.  Here he
established his military headquarters and the capital of his
grandly proclaimed Kingdom of New Mexico.
	A short time later, Onate moved his settlers to the west
bank of the Rio Grande and founded the first formal municipality
west of the Mississippi, La Villa of San Gabriel.
	It remained the official terminus of the far-flung Camino
Real.  In 1610 Santa Fe was established as the new capital and
the end of the King's Highway shifted to its plaza.
	By then Juan de Onate had resigned as governor of New Mexico
and returned to Zacatecas.  He left behind a well-marked road as
a monument to his pioneering achievement.  He deserves to be
remembered as the "Father of the Camino Real".
 
Through Desierto and Bosque
	The northern portion of the Camino Real de Tierra Adentro
traversed some of the most desolate and rugged terrain in Western
North America--a region of sparse vegetation, occasional springs
and rare perennial streams, of climatic extremes, erratic
precipitation, high winds, low humidities, and intense solar
radiation.
	Various environmental factors--terrain, water, vegetation--
played a role in the route, the rate of travel, the locations of
the parajes (encampments), and the mode of transportation.
	Creosotebush, whitethorn acacia, saltbush, mesquite, and in
some places yucca, and agave dominated the landscape.  Gramma and
other grasses provided forage for the livestock.
	Nearing Socorro travelers entered the cool shade of the
bosque, the extensive canopy forests of valley cottonwoods with
an understory of willows and salt grass, which lined the banks of
the Rio Grande.  The bosque provided fuel wood, and shelter, the
river a dependable water supply.
	Near Santo Domingo Pueblo the road left the edge of the
river and cut across a plain dotted with pinon trees.  At La
Bajada volcanic escarpment the route divided: one branch either
scaled the steep 900' black basalt cliff or followed the Santa Fe
river, while the other wound its way up the Galisteo arroyo then
turned north entering the area of Santa Fe by this more gradual
means.
	A number of mammals which provided travelers with meat were
found along the route.  On the semi-desert grasslands were the
black-tailed rabbit and pronghorn antelope.  The desert scrub
supported mule deer, desert cottontail, and desert bighorn sheep. 
The buffalo which was later to play such an important role in the
local economy grazed at some distance from the route of the
Camino.
	Along the major stream valleys and on the lagunas were
sandhill cranes, and varieties of ducks and geese.
	Whenever possible flat or gently sloping terrain with a firm
footing was chosen for the trail.  In some places hills of deep
sand delayed travel and were negotiated only by doubling the
teams.
	The huge sand dunes, Los Medanos de Samalayuca, south of El
Paso, provided an almost impassable barrier.  Heavily loaded
vehicles were often routed via San Elizario--a two day detour.
	Dreaded jornadas were inhospitable, waterless stretches
which often required forced marches and night travel.  The
jornadas of Jesus Maria and Cantarecio lay below El Paso.  The
Jornada del Muerto lay north of the Robledo encampment.  A 90
mile stretch virtually devoid of water, it provided little
shelter or fuel.
	Caravans usually came north in the spring and returned south
in autumn.  Twelve miles a day was an average rate of travel for
a cart and wagon caravan.  The journeys between Mexico and New
Mexico took months to complete.  Today we can hardly appreciate
the physical effort and detailed planning such a trip would
demand.
	From an 1874 army report:
 
     "Of wild animals, the grizzly, brown and black bears,
     panther, wild cat, weasel, large and small wolves are
     the most important.  Black and white-tailed deer, as
     well as antelope, are abundant in the mountain regions. 
     Swan, pellicans, wild geese, brant and almost every
     species of duck abound on the river, as well as hill
     cranes, blue herons, bitterns and several species of
     snipe.  At some distance from the post, and principally
     in the mountains, are found turkey, quail and
     blackbird."
 
Ancient Trails
	A network of ancient Indian Trails predated the Spanish
Camino Real.  By this means the Puebloan world received its
cultural contacts and maintained a complex of trade patterns with
neighboring tribes and with the greater Mesoamerican world.
	The West Mexican Interior Trail connected western
Mesoamerica with the sophisticated Chalchihuites culture of
Durango and Zacatecas.  This route joined a much traveled
interior trunk line which brought goods from the west coast of
Mexico.
	Sometime after A.D. 1000 the West Mexican Interior Trail was
linked to the great trading center of Casas Grandes in western
Chihuahua, which flourished during the 13th and 14th centuries. 
It quickly became the primary redistribution center for the goods
moving into the upper Southwest.
	One of the important northern segments of the Casas Grandes
Trail was the Rio Grande Pueblo Indian Trail extending from
around El Paso to the upper Rio Grande.
	By the end of the 15th century Casas Grandes was in ruins
and its roadways fell into disuse.  However, the Rio Grande
segment remained intact and quickly became incorporated into a
second interregional trail system.
	As Casas Grandes declined, vigorous trading communities
arose in the mountain valleys of northern Sonora.  About mid-14th
century, these became anchor points in a trail connecting the
Southwest with western Mesoamerica.  Within a century this West
Mexican Coastal Trail was the major route from the Mexican
heartland to the basin and range country of southeastern Arizona
and to southwestern New Mexico, with its northern terminus at
modern Zuni.  Two major trunk lines connected this route to the
Rio Grande Pueblo Indian Trail.
	These ancient trade routes supplied Southwestern Indians
with important trade goods.  Up from the south came marine shell,
parrot and macaw feathers, and copper objects (particularly
copper jingle bells).  Down the trails from the Southwest went
turquoise, peridot, serpentine, garnet and other semi-precious
stones, pottery, salt, meerschaum, alibates flints, processed
bison products and perhaps slaves.
	Indian trails quickly attracted Spanish attention, and
Spanish parties began using them for slave trading raids as early
as 1530.  Later the Spanish expeditions marched over these routes
in their conquest of the Southwest.
	When the Spanish established control of New Mexico the Rio
Grande Pueblo Indian Trail became the upper part of the Camino
Real.
 
The Pueblo Way of Life
	Between A.D. 1300-1325 the prehistoric population
congregated into larger pueblos along the Rio Grande.  Many of
the villages founded then were ancestors of Puebloan communities
which the first Spaniards encountered, some of which survive to
this day.
	The pueblo peoples developed a rich and expressive culture
which was mirrored in their religious beliefs and practices, in
their arts and crafts.
	Emphasis on a ceremonial expression of the cycles in the
natural world played a central role in Pueblo beliefs.  Their
sacred dances assured its perpetuation, as did observances held
in underground kivas.  Sacred and temporal expressions were
intricately bound together in this unifying world view.
	The first pueblos only contained 10-50 rooms, but by the
early 1400's villages had grown in size and by 1425 some very
large pueblos with hundreds of rooms were built.  When the
Spaniards arrived there were more than 130 pueblos.
	This society was supported by sophisticated agricultural
practices which included irrigation networks along the low-lying
Rio Grande floodplain.
	Corn, beans, melons, squash and herbs were all cultivated. 
In good years the surplus was traded for meat and hides from
neighboring tribes.
	Domestic turkey supplemented deer, buffalo, bighorn sheep
and other large game, but community rabbit hunts provided the
most common meat.
	Locally grown cotton was woven into fine sashes, mantas and
everyday clothing.  Well-made handicrafts of all kinds--pottery,
basketry, worked turquoise mosaic, and other luxury goods were
traded over a large area.
	It was this multi-lingual deeply religious culture which the
Spaniards encountered when they came marching up the Camino Real.
 
The Great Missions
	Franciscan priests accompanied the first Spanish explorers
to New Mexico.  Once the government was established, priests were
assigned to each pueblo.  They soon put the natives to work
building churches whose soaring dimensions reflected their
vaulting ambitions.  The friars introduced new tools--hammers,
mallets, wedges, augers, chisels, saws--and new building
techniques.
	Blacksmithing was one of these important new technologies--
forges were built and Indians taught to use tongs, sledges,
vises, files, and punches.
	The friars also brought rich furnishings for the churches
they were building--rich priestly vestments such as chasubles,
amices and albs, and churches furnishing such as chalices,
paintings and statues.
	Music, not the force of arms, proved to be a more persuasive
means of soothing and converting the Indians of the New World to
Catholicism and Spanish rule.  Plainchant (plainsong) was taught
by the friars as an integral part of the first New Mexico mission
liturgy and musicians were taught to play shawms (bassoons),
military snare drums, trumpets, violins.  As early as 1630 there
was a portable organ in the church at Senecu.  None of these
instruments survived the Pueblo Revolt of 1680.
	Since few exploitable resources had been found in this
distant kingdom, a royal subsidy supported the Franciscan
missionary effort.
	From 1609 an official caravan came north from Mexico City
every three or four years to resupply the missions and sustain
the economy of this far flung province.
	In practice this caravan was more than a missionary supply
service.  It served as a vital but tenuous link between the
civilization at the heart of Mexico, and that distant outpost of
empire, New Mexico.
 
"Oh God!  What a lonely land!"
	During the 17th century the Indian population of New Mexico
was undergoing rapid acculturation and native religious,
political and economic institutions were under brutal attack.
	Forced to pay tribute, to work for both secular and
religious officials, subject to raids by Navajos and Apaches,
visited by famine, drought and imported diseases, and asked to
deny their own religious beliefs--these caused an increasing
resentment among Pueblo Indians.
	In 1675, Governor Trevino ordered 3 Pueblo medicine men
executed and others severely punished.  This became a rallying
point for Indian nationalism.  The Indian leader Pope, one of
those cruelly treated by Spaniards, forged a secret alliance of
all the pueblos.  On an appointed day Indian warriors attacked
all the Spanish missions and towns, killing 21 priests and 400
colonists.
	Santa Fe was besieged and Gov. Otermin barely escaped with a
band of colonists, while the Lt. Governor of Rio Abajo fled south
along the Camino Real with many settlers.  These two groups of
frightened, ragged refugees met at Fray Cristobal and were given
desperately needed supplies by a relief column coming north.
	Continuing southward, the 2400 Spaniards and Indian allies
finally came to exhausted rest at La Salineta.  From there they
were moved to El Paso, where three new towns were established
downriver from the Church of Our Lady of Guadalupe.
	From El Paso both Governors Otermin and Cruzate made
unsuccessful attempts to reconquer New Mexico.  In 1692, however,
the aristocratic don Diego de Vargas Zapata Lujan Ponce de Leon y
Contreras started boldly up the Camino Real to reconquer the
territory.
	Arriving in later summer, Vargas was able to enter Santa Fe
peacefully.  He soon returned to El Paso to organize a
recolonizing effort.  In the fall of 1693 he came back up the
trail with 100 soldiers, 70 families, 18 Franciscans and 900
heads of livestock.  This time Santa Fe did not surrender without
a fierce fight.  By the end of the 17th century, however, New
Mexico was again securely in Spanish hands.
	"Oh God!" Vargas once wrote, "What a lonely land!"
	Vargas mentions the Camino Real in a document:
 
     Immediately after, in the plaza of the abandoned pueblo
     of Cochiti, on the morning of the eleventh of the
     present month of September, because I was far from the
     pueblo they call Santo Domingo, and the opinion held in
     the pueblo of El Paso was that it was inhabited by many
     Indians, and nearby on the Camino Real that goes to the
     villa of Santa Fe, I, the governor and captain general,
     ordered that the men-at-arms of my company remount.
 
 
	Don Pedro de Rivera, pictured by El Paso artist Jose
Cisneros in full uniform, was commissioned by the Viceroy of New
Spain to conduct an exhaustive military inspection of the
northern Provinces of New Spain in 1724-1728.  He reported on the
condition of defenses, towns, missions, and Indian groups.  His
recommendations gave rise to a new presidial code.  These reforms
were ineffective, thus underscoring the Spanish crown's inability
to control the northern frontier area.  Rivera traveled down the
Camino Real from Santa Fe to El Paso in the fall of 1726.
	(Baron Frederich Heinrich) Alexander von Humboldt never
visited the northern provinces of New Spain but had available a
wealth of information, including previous maps, documents, and
personal communications with travelers.  He produced his map of
the route from Mexico City to Santa Fe, the Camino Real, in 1803
through reliance on the journals of Don Pedro de Rivera and his
won astronomical observations.  His maps and political essays
were published in France in 1811.
 
Places of the Heart
	In the 18th century, two great systems--the Rio Grande and
the Camino Real--lay at the very heart of New Mexico.  They
nourished and supported its society and its economy.
	After the Pueblo Revolt and Spanish reconquest, the Native
American pueblos and the Hispanics gradually withdrew from a line
of confrontation and began a search for mutual accommodation. 
Each culture redefined its territorial boundaries and began to
establish its own governmental structures and identity.
	In the course of the 18th century, the population of the
Pueblo Indians declined, while the Hispanics increased, so that
by the end of the century their numbers had multiplied seven-fold
to an estimated 25,000 people.
	The basis of Hispanic society was an agrarian economy.  An
increasing number of farms and ranches were established on lands
enriched by the periodic flooding of the river.  In some areas
they formed an unbroken line on either side of the trail.
	Waters for irrigation were drawn from the river by means of
acequias.
	Wheat of superlative quality was grown and exported, and
seeds, brought up the Camino Real, enormously increased the range
and variety of edible plants, herbs and fruits.
	The iron tools--the plow point, the sickle and the hoe--
introduced by the Europeans were put to ever-increasing use.
	Like beads on a string, villages also sprang up alongside
the Camino Real.  These were populated by Hispanics as well as by
Genizaros, captive Apache, Navajo, Ute, Wichita, Pawnee and
Comanche Indians who had been raised in Hispanic households and
lost their tribal identity.
	As successive generations of Hispanics were born and raised
in New Mexico, the Hispanic society--its subtle patterns and
rhythms, its customs and beliefs--became deeply rooted in New
Mexico soil.  It was as if, at the very tip of the great trunk of
the Camino Real, a branch had flourished and flowered.  The land
had taken root in their hearts.
 
The Churro
	Churro Sheep were first brought from Mexico to New Mexico by
the Spanish conquistadores.  Once well established, these sheep
provided a new source of meat, furnished by-products such as
wool, hides, pelts, tallow, and contributed substantially to the
colonial economy.
	The churro, descended from the common sedentary sheep of
southern Spain, adapted itself readily to the semiarid pastures
of New Mexico and was able to substitute morning dew and
succulent plants for drinking water.  Small in stature, its
meager fleece of coarse, long staple wool was well suited to hand
processing, its meat unsurpassed.
	By mid-17th century, the number of livestock on New Mexico's
ranges had increased significantly as a marketing connection for
them was established down the Camino Real.  Throughout colonial
times New Mexico sheepmen found that towns in northern New Spain
such as Parral, Chihuahua, and Durango provided a ready and a
lucrative market for livestock.
	Slow to recover from the disruptions caused by the Pueblo
Revolt, by 1750 sheep ranching had again become one of the
region's most important industries.
	In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries New
Mexico drovers marketed hundreds of thousands of sheep in
Chihuahua.
	As the number of flocks destined for Nueva Vizcaya
increased, the caravans, known as cordones or conductas, were
issued a manifest and became carefully organized and regulated.
	By the early 19th century, the sheep population increased
dramatically.  In 1831, in a single drive 30,000 head were herded
down the Camino Real to Durango.  Between 1835 and 1840 over
200,000 head of churro sheep were sent south.
 
The Horse
	The first Spaniards arrived in New Mexico astride Spanish
horses.  These horses were descendants of the African Barb, whose
ancestors dated back to Carthaginian and Roman times.  More
purebred Barb horses were introduced when the Moors conquered
Spain in the 8th century.  Long prized as fighting horses, they
were brought to the New World aboard Spanish galleons.
	Juan de Onate was the first to bring brood mares to New
Mexico.  In subsequent years many more horses were brought up the
Camino Real.  In the years following the conquest Indian tribes
captured thousands of horses from the Spanish.  The horse
eventually became widely dispersed among many Indian tribes.
	Quickly integrated into the Native American culture, the
horse allowed the Indian to ride farther and flee faster.  It
enormously increased the Indians' hunting range, and became an
item of barter and trade.  The mounted Indian Scout painted by
Alfred Jacob Miller conveys the sense of extravagant freedom and
pride that typifies the Plains warriors.
	The horse was entirely strange to the Americas.  The Indians
had heard that a fierce people had come 'who travelled on animals
that ate people.'  This 16th-century petroglyph pictures a huge
horse with paws like a lion.  Found in a remote canyon in Sonora,
Mexico, it may record the coming of one of the earliest Spanish
expeditions.
	The Spanish custom of letting mares run in pasture or on
open range led to the development of vast herds of feral horses,
spread throughout the plains.  In a tactic unique to New Spain,
colorfully garbed vaqueros surround a band of wild horses and
rope them with a reata.
	A mid-19th century hidalgo, riding his flaxen roan bolt
upright, flicks the ash negligently from his cigarro.  His saddle
is a forerunner of today's 'western' saddle.  Josiah Gregg wrote,
"The horses are mustangs, wild on the prairies.  Generally very
small, they are quick, active and spirited ... some of their
caballos de silla or saddle horses are remarkably well-trained.
	Modern Barb horses show the athletic ability, conformation
and typical colors of this breed.  Sturdy enough to bear the
weight of a man in a full suit of armor, and themselves covered
with bullhide armor, these horses still had the stamina to cover
many miles a day.
	Riding descendants of the Spanish horse, three riders wear
(left to right) the costume of the 17th century hidalgo, the 18th
century vaquero, and the 19th century mountain man.
	In a 19th century engraving, the horse has improbably
delicate legs, small head and high tail set.  The equally elegant
rider wears traditional tight-fitting pants with decorated side
openings, a jacket, a broad-brimmed hat, and a serape for warmth.
 
The Chihuahua Trail
	In the 18th century, once Chihuahua City developed as an
important terminus, the northern section of the Camino Real
became known also as the Chihuahua Trail.  For New Mexico the
Camino Real provided an economic life-line, an all-important tie
to the centers of government and culture to the south.
	The necessities and luxuries brought north sustained and
gave meaning to the Spanish Colonial frontier lifestyle and were
critical to the well-being and self-esteem of the vecinos of far
northern Nueva Vizcaya.
	The triennial Franciscan caravans of the 17th century were
replaced after 1700 by annual wagon trains, conductas or convoys,
run by private contractors.
	Supplies, equipment, household furnishings, and personal
items from Europe, China and elsewhere in the New World were
carried over this trail well into the mid-19th century.
	Beasts of burden, introduced by Europeans, as well as the
cart and the wagon, made this trade possible.  Burros were
reserved for local traffic and for the breeding of mules.  The
major hauling along the Camino Real was done by ox-cart or atajo,
mule train.
	The lumbering creaking ox-cart, drawn by teams of 6 to 20
oxen, could carry prodigious loads.  The Sosa expedition brought
the first carts to New Mexico in 1590.  Onate brought carros,
carretas, and carrozas in 1598.
	Carretas were made almost entirely of wood fastened with
rawhide thongs and secured with wooden pegs.  Their two huge
wheels were sometimes rimmed with iron.  Carretas survived in
Mexico and New Mexico pueblos as local transportation for a long
time.
	No example remains of the four-wheel carro, the vehicle
perhaps most commonly utilized to transport heavy loads, which
boasted iron fittings.
	A bullwhacker walked alongside the ox-train, prodding the
oxen with a metal pointed goad, or cracking a huge whip over
their heads.
	Mules, introduced from Mexico, were superior beasts of
burden.  They could carry 400 lbs. and cover 12-15 miles a day. 
An atajo of 200 animals was common with one arriero managing
40-50 animals.
	In the morning the grazing mules would be driven to the line
of packs and blindfolded with a tapajos, a piece of embroidered
leather.  A pad of raw sheepskin would be thrown over its back,
the a xerga, or woolen blanket, and an aparejo, leather pouches
stuffed with straw.  The carga, or load, was then bound in place
with ropes and covered with a petate.
	The annual caravan went south every autumn.  The date of its
departure and the common meeting place--the plaza at Albuquerque,
La Joya de Sevilleta or some other location--was announced by
official bando and proclaimed in each locality by the town crier,
accompanied by drum and bugle.
	On the appointed day a huge crowd would assemble and,
accompanied by a military escort, set off to the south.  In the
assemblage would be the sick or wounded going to the hospital in
Chihuahua, traders, government officials, friars and often entire
families--including their servants--forming a complete cross-
section of New Mexico society.  On occasion 5-10% of the New
Mexican population took the arduous trip.
	Secured in trunks, leather or hide sacks, were those efectos
de pais, local products, which New Mexicans took south.  These
included pinon nuts, highly prized as delicacies, cotton mantas,
roughly woven woolen cloth, the elkhides, deer and antelope
skins, buffalo hides, pickled buffalo tongues, and tallow
garnered in the trade with the Plains Indians, as well as teguas,
leather moccasins, and Indian slaves.
	On the return trip merchants brought fancy textiles of all
kinds, including silk and linen, hats, ironwork, and hardware. 
Their mule trains also brought back dyes of Brazilwood and
indigo, drugs, paper, luxuries such as chocolate, sugar, and
rice, mirrors, silverware, majolica dishes, and Chinese
porcelain.
	Annual trade fairs, where traders could purchase what they
needed for the coming year, were established in San Juan del Rio
near Durango, and at el Valle de San Bartolome near Chihuahua. 
Smaller groups of traders would continue on to Sonora, Coahuila,
and other parts of Mexico.
 
New Towns
	For a long time, Santa Fe was the only royal villa in New
Mexico.  Coming into Santa Fe, the Chihuahua caravans would wend
their way up el Camino del Alamo, pass through the outskirts of
town until they arrived at Santa Fe's small main plaza.  As an
1880's photograph attests, the Chihuahua trade continued until
late in the 19th century.
	The trader Thomas James described Santa Fe in 1821.  "The
town is beautifully situated on a plain of dry and rolling ground
at the foot of a high mountain, a small stream runs directly
through the city."
	With the increase of population, more villages and clusters
of ranches and farms came into being.  In the first decade of the
18th century, two important villas or towns were also
established--Albuquerque and Chihuahua City.  These would serve
as anchor points along the Camino Real, the northern section of
which now became known as the Chihuahua Trail.
	Albuquerque was established in 1706, when Francisco Cuervo y
Valdes obtained permission to settle a group of 30 families from
Bernalillo in this location.  "It will be the most prosperous
villa," he assured the authorities, "for its growth of cattle and
abundance of grain.  Because of its fertility it will be named la
Villa de Albuquerque de San Francisco Xavier del Bosque."
	In the 17th century, the Camino Real consisted of one road
along the east bank of the river and one on the west bank which
linked villages and provided alternate routes in time of flood.
	The German artist Rudolf Cronau sketched many locations he
visited during an extensive tour of America in mid-19th century. 
The details of Cronau's drawing are reminiscent of a description
of the town by another 19th century visitor.  "Old Albuquerque is
one of the quaintest, oldest fashioned towns in our whole
country.  It preserves its pristine originality.  The streets are
narrow, pavementless burro-trails of the old time.  The language
of the street is Spanish.  The by-paths echo the tread of priests
in their long black flapping petticoats and broad, black shovel
hats."
	Valuable ore deposits were found at the mines of Santa
Eulalia.  In the boom which followed, two small adjoining camps
were combined and designated La Villa Real de San Felipe el Real
de Chihuahua in 1709.  This town quickly eclipsed Parral as Nueva
Vizcaya's leading mineral and commercial center.  It played an
increasingly pivotal role in the New Mexico trade.
	In the early 19th century, the American beaver trapper,
James Ohio Pattie, traveled the length of the Chihuahua trail. 
He wrote "Chihuahua is the largest and handsomest town I have
ever seen."  In two mid-19th century engravings, the twin spires
of Chihuahua's Cathedral can be seen from afar, while a smaller
church on the outskirts of the city is shown in a romantic
pastoral setting.
	In the 1880's the American photographer, John Hillers,
traveled the Chihuahua Trail.  His photograph of Chihuahua City
reveals how much it had grown.
 
Los Ricos
	In the course of the 18th century, as New Mexico enjoyed a
greater political stability, material wealth also increased as
profits from ranching and from trade with Mexico accumulated.
	As a result of increasing affluence a stratified social
structure, in imitation of the economic and social patterns which
prevailed in Mexico, also began to emerge.
	While the lower classes lived a humble life, and were
employed in various cottage industries, people of the upper class
dined on silver plates, with knives, forks, spoons, goblets and
saltcellars of silver--all brought up the Camino Real from
Mexico.
	Dress was important.  This "Don" swaggers in his big hat and
his elaborate costume, trimmed with silver buttons.
	George Kendall, an American traveler, reported
enthusiastically on the charms of the senoritas.  "The more
striking beauties of the women of northern Mexico are their small
feet, finely turned ankles, well-developed busts, small and
classically formed hands, dark and lustrous eyes, teeth of
beautiful shape and dazzling whiteness, and hair of that rich and
jetty blackness ... they are joyous, sociable, kind-hearted
creatures almost universally, liberal to a fault, easy and
naturally graceful in the manners."
	Carl Nebel, who traveled extensively in Mexico, pictured
these women wearing full skirts, loose fitting blouses and
rebosos or tapalos.  They also boasted filigree jewelry and large
pendants, while the men kept their tobacco in silver containers.
	Though the houses were but humble adobe structures, the
interiors were often decorated with mirrors and other
decorations, such as a valuable golden crucifix.
	Though Santa Fe was not to look like this until the 19th
century, when new architectural elements were introduced by the
Americans, the character and tenor of life remained predominantly
Hispanic.
	Colonial life could be dull and uneventful.  Any excuse for
a fandango was welcome.  Wrote Lt. Abert in the mid-19th century:
 
     "In the evening we had a very merry dance at the
     fandango.  The cuna resembles the Spanish dance of the
     United States.  Then they have the valse, in which they
     pass the ladies under their arms.  And we saw the
     jarabe, a dance in which the men show off their steps;
     it resembles our hornpipe ... The music consists of a
     violin, guitar and voices.  The singers compose their
     songs impromptu and often the listeners burst forth
     into laughter at some happy stroke of the witty
     singers."
 
The Mission Trail
	In the course of the 17th century there evolved at the heart
of New Spain a refined and even sumptuous culture.  Architecture,
painting, sculpture, the minor arts, and music all flourished. 
They were intimately bound with the glorification of the Catholic
faith.  Although at first all of these arts were dependent on
European prototypes, in time they developed a life and style of
their own.
	It was this 18th century Mexican colonial or Viceregal art
whose influence radiated from Mexico City and, travelling along
the trade routes, reached the remoter provinces.
	In population centers along the Camino Real de Tierra
Adentro elaborate new churches were built.  These were graced
with enormous gilded altars, furnished with paintings, statues,
and other ecclesiastical objects.  Many of these objects were
carried laboriously up the Camino Real in ox carts.
	The Cathedral in Chihuahua City offers a good example of the
Mexican Baroque style with its elaborate stone facade and
magnificent interior vaulted space.  However, farther to the
north churches were simpler adobe structures on a smaller scale.
	In the 18th century, many fine paintings and carved wooden
statues from the leading workshops in Mexico City, along with
rich vestments, chasubles and chalices, were transported along
the Camino Real to churches in the provinces.
	In New Mexico a number of 18th century Mexican paintings
still can be seen in churches as at the Pueblo of Isleta.
	One of the finest examples of mexican Viceregal art is a
painting of Our Lady of Guadalupe by the Rococo artist, Salcedo. 
The frame with its silver insets is original.
	Churches were built to honor Our Lady of Guadalupe in Santa
Fe, in (present day) Ciudad Juarez and in Chihuahua City.
 
	The arts of Spain had given rise to indigenous Spanish
Colonial arts in Mexico in the 17th and 18th centuries.  In turn,
this Mexican Colonial art served as parent to New Mexico Colonial
art which flourished in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
	Mexican Colonial paintings, carvings, engravings and other
artifacts brought up on the Camino Real served as prototypes for
a local religious art which developed its own palette, its own
materials and its own independent form of expression.
 
The Presidio
	The presidio was established in New Spain as a means of
protecting El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.  By 1590, the
presidio had become basic to frontier defense, and eventually 7
presidios were strung in a line from Mexico City to Zacatecas.
	By the 1720s 18 presidios served as defensive outposts along
the northern frontier of New Spain.  Military duties included
supplying escorts for royal officials, supply trains and merchant
caravans, and conducting relations with Indians.
	In 1766, the Marques de Rubi was ordered to inspect the
presidios of the Interior Provinces.  He was accompanied by
Capitan Nicolas de Lafora, who kept a diary of the trip and
eventually drew the most accurate and detailed map of the
interior provinces, and by Sub-lieutenant Jose Urrutia, also a
draftsman.  They traveled 7,500 miles and inspected 23 presidios. 
Rubi's report reveled a situation far more critical than anyone
realized--lack of discipline, corruption, poor equipment, and a
frontier beleaguered by Ute, Apache, Comanche and Navajo raiders.
	Rubi proposed to place a line of defensive presidios from
gulf to gulf, as well as one presidio in San Antonio, one in
Santa Fe.  His recommendations were officially adopted in 1771. 
A year later the control of the Interior Provinces was placed
under a Commandant General, directly responsible to the King of
Spain.
	The garrison at El Paso del Norte was moved to Carrizal to
block the Indian war trail leading to Chihuahua City and to
provide a staging area for campaign against Indians.  Another
garrison was moved to San Elizario.
	The weapons of the frontier soldier were the sword, the
lance, muskets and pistols.  Usually an excellent horseman, often
poor and illiterate, he all too often lead a bleak and demanding
life.
	The armor of the frontier soldier often proved inadequate
for the desert and mountain warfare of the Interior Provinces.
	Late in 18th century peace was gradually restored to the
region.  However, with the coming of Mexican Independence and the
government's preoccupation with its internal affairs, little
attention could be paid to the defenses of the northern
provinces.  With the dismantlement of Spanish presidios, there
was a return to Indian depredations.
	In the last quarter of the 18th century, able New Mexico
Governor Juan Bautista de Anza established peaceful relationships
with the Comanches on New Mexico's northern frontier.
 
On To Taos
	In the late summer, at harvest time, when the air was still
and clear, hundreds of Indians from various tribes came from all
directions to the famous Taos trade fair.
	Located at a convenient crossroads, even in prehistoric
times Taos may have been such a meeting place.  It began to
emerge as an important colonial trading center by the early 18th
century.  By 1723, it was officially proclaimed as an annual
occurrence.  The Governor rode up from Santa Fe to preside over
the two-week event, to maintain order and adjudicate disputes
among the traders.
	A month long Peace of God was proclaimed and warfare
temporarily suspended so that travelers going and coming from the
fair could do so in safety.
	To the fair came Navajos, Kiowas, Utes, Apaches and the
richest and most powerful of the nomadic Indians, Comanches.  The
Comanches had originally been situated farther to the north but
shifted their range to the south, in part to take advantage of
the trade opportunities which the fair afforded.
	On the broad green meadows, Los Esteros, not far from Taos
pueblo, the Indians and their families pitched their tipis until
villages covered many acres.  It must have presented a wildly
colorful assortment of tribes!
	There was always a lack of reach cash and the usual form of
exchange was barter or Cambalache.
	The Indians brought buffalo robes, pickled buffalo tongues,
the elk and deer skins which they knew how to tan as soft as
velvet.  In trade they received such Spanish goods as iron wear,
knives, cloth, beads, blankets and other items.
	The Indians also brought slaves and captives to be bought or
ransomed.  Thus the fair came to be called Rescate, or ransom. 
Most frequently women and children, these had been captured from
other Indian tribes or abducted from European settlements.
	While trade was the principal objective, horse-racing and
gambling also took place and the gathering often became noisy,
wild and even dangerous.
	The trade at Taos was crucial to Camino Real commerce, for
the goods traded here would be taken by mule train to Santa Fe
and thence to Mexico in the annual caravan.
	Throughout the 18th century, the Taos trade fair continued
as an important event.  By 1821, however, it had virtually
disappeared.  Other economic factors intervened and the Comanches
again shifted their range and no longer attended the fair, thus
bringing to a close a brilliantly colorful chapter of New Mexico
history.
 
The Northernmost Frontier
	Although these photographs were taken in the late 19th-
century long the Pecos, Taos and Abiquiu were important centers
of trade, they record the lasting strength and inner dignity
which must even earlier have characterized these various Plains
Indians.
 
"Aye!  There was much to see!"
	The French owned the Louisiana Territory which lay adjacent
to the eastern Spanish border.  French parties traded with the
Plains Indians and, in the 1740s and 1750s, a few reached New
Mexico.
	In 1763, the Louisiana territory was ceded by France to
Spain.  Returned to France in 1800, it was finally sold to the
United States in 1803, thus opening the way for the coming of the
Anglo-Americans.
	In 1806, young Lieutenant Zebulon Pike of 6th US infantry
was sent westward to explore the country of the Arkansas and Red
Rivers.  Wandering far from his intended course, he and his men
spent a harrowing winter in Southern Colorado.  Once news of his
presence on Spanish territory became known, soldiers were sent to
capture the party.
	Their arrival in Santa Fe in 1807, thin and bedraggled, was
recreated by the painter, Frederic Remington.  Treated both with
suspicion and courtesy, Pike and his companions were marched down
the Camino Real to Mexico for further interrogation by higher
authorities, and eventually released.
	Pike's "Journals" was published in 1810.  His exciting
descriptions of his expedition into Spanish territory "spread
like wildfire throughout the western country."
	Fur Trappers were among the first to explore the West in the
early decades of the 19th century.  Between 1820-40 they
penetrated into the farthest reaches of the western wilderness. 
They worked for themselves and at a yearly rendezvous sold their
furs to the highest bidder.
	Trappers and traders followed the Camino Real through Paso
del Norte to Sonora and Chihuahua and penetrated the wild
isolation that lay beyond the narrow fringes of civilization
along the Rio Grande.
	Many of the desert and semi-desert rivers of the Southwest
were major beaver trapping fields.  The beaver (castor or nutria
in Spanish), trapped to provide fur for fashionable top hats, was
only saved from extinction when the vogue changed to those made
of China silk.
	Rough and hardy, wearing fringed buckskin, a leather belt
holding up a butcher knife and pistols, and a bullet pouch hung
from his neck, the trapper courted danger every day.  Indians,
grizzly bears, quarrels, hunger, thirst, flood, storm, accident,
and disease all took a terrible toll.
	James Ohio Pattie, who wrote of his life as a trapper in the
Southwest between 1825-32, traveled up and down New Mexico's
Camino Real numerous times.  His was an incredibly adventuresome
life.  He knew the Southwest when it was solitary and pristine. 
He wrote of his travels, "Aye!  There was much to see!"
 
1821 - Mexican Independence
	History does not record who first brought news of Mexico's
Independence from Spain to New Mexico.  Perhaps it was contained
in secret documents brought north along the Camino by courier. 
Although it was long believed that New Mexico was isolated from
main events in New Spain, in fact this province and its officials
maintained close ties to the central government and the citizens
of Mexico, and must have been aware of the political currents
which gave rise to the Mexican War of Independence.
	In Europe, the French ruler Napoleon's designs against the
Spanish crown caused an instability in the government which left
the colonies without adequate direction.  Liberal creoles and
mestizos in Mexico, long dissatisfied with Spanish rule, saw in
this an opportunity to rise up against the Spanish.
	The Catholic priest, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, on Sept. 16,
1810, called for a revolt from the pulpit of his small church. 
Soon the small army that he led swelled to tens of thousands. 
The rebellion ushered in a decade of violence and uncertainty,
and trade patterns with the northern provinces were disrupted.
	The revolutionary forces suffered repeated defeats at the
hands of the Spanish military.  Hidalgo and other revolutionary
patriots were captured and executed.  The fight for liberty
passed to other hands, until, in 1821, Agostin de Iturbide
marched on Mexico City and triumphantly proclaimed Mexico's
Independence from Spain.
	On December 26, 1821, word reached Santa Fe of Iturbide's
triumphal entry into Mexico City.  "Vivas resounded on all sides,
patriotic harangues were heard and never had such delight and
satisfaction reigned."
	In 1822, the Anglo-American trapper Thomas James described a
more colorful celebration:
 
     On the fifth of February a celebration took place of
     the Mexican Independence.  A flag was raised and canon
     fired.  From all quarters of the city men and women
     came running to the public square.  The people of the
     surrounding country also came in, and for five days the
     square was covered with Spaniards and Indians from
     every part of the province.  During this whole time the
     city exhibited a scene of universal carousing and
     revelry, reckless dissipation and profligacy.  The
     women wore jewelry and rebosos edged with gold.
     	On the second day of the celebration, a large
     company of men and women from San Felipe, and Indian
     town four miles south of Santa Fe, marched into the
     city displaying the best formed persons I had yet seen
     in the country.  The men were a head taller than the
     Spaniards around them, and their women were extremely
     beautiful, with fine figure and a graceful, elegant
     carriage.  They were all tastefully dressed in cotton
     cloth of their own weaving, and decorated with coral
     beads of a brilliant red color.  Many wore rich pearl
     necklaces and jewelry of great value.  This Indian
     company danced very gracefully upon the public square
     to the sound of a drum and the singing of older members
     of their band.
     	About the same time, the Peccase Indians came into
     the city dressed in skins of bulls and bears and they
     looked like the animals which they counterfeited so
     well that the people fled frightened at the appearance.
 
	Once Mexico gained independence from Spain, the
repercussions were felt in New Mexico.  New political and
economic policies became realities.  The restrictions against the
Anglo Americans and trade with the east were relaxed.
 
The Santa Fe Trail
	The Spanish authorities in New Mexico had closed their
frontiers to Anglo Americans.  With the coming of Mexican
Independence, these regulations were relaxed and the Americans
and their goods were welcomed.  This marked the opening of the
Santa Fe Trail.
	"Thus far we had marched in two lines only, but after
crossing the Pawnee fork ... we marched four abreast.  (Thus) the
wagons can be thrown more readily into a condition of defense in
case of attack."  Josiah Gregg
	In 1831, Josiah Gregg, for reasons of health, joined a
trader's caravan bound for Santa Fe.  He wrote, "It was one of
the brightest and most lovely days of the calendar, that our
party set out from Independence."
	From 1831-40, Gregg crossed and recrossed the Great Plains
accompanying merchant caravans, trading American dry goods and
hardware for Mexican silver and mules.
	In the fall of 1833, Gregg traveled south along the Camino
Real to the interior cities of Mexico.
	In 1844, Josiah Gregg's "Commerce of the Prairies" was
published.  It provided a detailed account of the Santa Fe Trade. 
Since he was a curious and observant traveler, it also contained
many vivid descriptions of adventures and local customs and much
prairie lore.
	"After William Becknell made the first trading expedition to
Santa Fe in 1821, demonstrating the high profits that could be
earned from such commerce, trading over the Trail swelled
steadily in volume....  By 1824, however, so many eager
Missourians had entered the trade that the New Mexico market
became glutted with merchandise.  As a result, it became
necessary for the American merchants to seek new outlets in
Chihuahua, Durango and other interior cities of Mexico."  Marc
Simmons
	River crossings were time-consuming and could be dangerous. 
at floodtide wagons often had to be ferried from shore to shore
in dugout canoes or else their cargos unloaded, the wagons
dismantled and carried across piece to be reassembled on the
shore.
	"It was truly a scene for the artist's pencil to revel in. 
Even the animals seemed to participate in the humor of their
riders who grew more and more merry and obstreperous as they
descended toward the city.  The arrival produced a great deal of
bustle and excitement, "Los Americanos!  Los carros!  La entrade
de las caravanas" were to be heard in every direction."
	"From the opposite ridge at the distance of a mile, a swarm
of savages were seen coming at us at full gallop and their
hideous whoop and yell soon resounded through the valley." 
Josiah Gregg
	"One current of Anglo American merchants, moving westward
out of Missouri, carried freight to the Mexican market.  A
countercurrent flowed from Santa Fe eastward to the American
settlements bearing Hispano traders who purchased goods direct
from the Missouri wholesale houses and transported them in their
own caravans to New Mexico and other northern provinces."  Marc
Simmons
	"By 1850, or shortly thereafter, the majority of private
freight caravans were owned and operated by New Mexicans or
Mexican nationals."  Marc Simmons
	Once the Santa Fe Trail merchants reached beyond Santa Fe
into northern Mexico, the Santa Fe Trail and the Camino
Real/Chihuahua Trail merged into a single long mercantile route.
	As we looked down the river this morning we saw the waters
sparkling in the sun, for the rapid current makes miniature waves
that catch the light Abert, J.W. Travel Diary, 1846.
 
	Lt. James W. Abert of the Topographical Engineers on duty
with the Army of the West after that hard march in the winter of
1846-47, wrote "I wonder at myself I could have borne so much."
	Rustic crosses, held in place by piles of stones, were
"thickly scattered over the country from one end of it to the
other."  Placed alongside the trail these did not mark a grave
but commemorated the site of a traveler's death.
	"On the plains [when] a group of traders is attacked by
Indians, they form a corral of 7 wagons, into which they bring
the animals."  Josiah Gregg
	"Gold dust and nuggets from the placer deposits in the Ortiz
Mountains south of Santa Fe and silver pesos from Chihuahua
flowed in a bright stream to the coffers of the Missouri
wholesalers."  Marc Simmons
	"A [Santa Fe Trader] arrived here a few days since... 
Wheat, he states, is raised in great abundance on the Rio del
Norte and transported on mules to Guaymas and other ports on the
east side of the Gulf of California, from whence it is shipped,
in exchange for silk, tea, and sugar, to China and India."  The
Franklin, Missouri Intelligenser, August 5, 1815.
	"Each teamster vies with his fellows who shall be soonest
ready; it is a matter of boastful pride to be the first to cry
out--'All's set!'.  'All's set,' is directly responded from every
quarter--the cracking of whips, the trampling of feet, the
occasional creak of the wheel, the rumbling of the wagons,
(provide) a scene of exquisite confusion."  Josiah Gregg
	"The firing still continued--the yells grew fiercer and more
frequent; everything betokened the approach of a terrible
conflict."
	"During the height of the bustle and uproar, a Mexican
servant was observed leaning with his back against a wagon, and
his fusil elevated at an angle of forty-five degrees; cocking and
pulling the trigger without ceasing and exclaiming at every snap,
"Carajo! no sirve!"
	"The wagons most in use upon the prairies are manufactured
in Pittsburgh, they are usually drawn by eight mules or the same
number of oxen.  At an earlier period, the horse was more
frequently used."  Josiah Gregg
	"Our route lay over uninterrupted prairie for 500 miles. 
This was my last trip across the Plains....  Since that time I
have striven to reconcile myself to the even tenor of civilized
life in the United States....  Yet I am almost ashamed to confess
that scarcely a day passes without my experiencing a pang of
regret that I am not now roving at large upon those western
plains....  The wild, unsettled and independent life of the
Prairie Trader makes perfect freedom from nearly every kind of
social dependence and absolute necessity of his being....  The
exchange of this untrammeled condition--this sovereign
independence, for a life in civilization....
	"Those who have lived pent up in our large cities know but
little of the broad, unembarrassed freedom of the Great Western
Plains."  Josiah Gregg
	Once in camp fuel was gathered, stock put out to graze, and
laundry washed.  Night, under a canopy of stars, was a time for
story telling and singing.  Troubadours accompanied each caravan
and composed corridos, which recounted memorable incidents on the
journey.
	"We had a severe time crossing the sands."  J.W. Abert
 
	In the 19th century, accounts of life in the west began to
appear in Eastern publications.  "Here, my child, is water!"
depicts a imaginary heart-wrenching scenario.  An illustration
from Harper's Weekly, "Life on the Rio Grande" strays even
farther from the truth.
	The Pittsburgh wagon was a modified version of the famous
Conestoga.  It was later replaced by smaller vehicles--road
wagons and dearborns.  However, once the Mexicans levied sizable
duties on each wagon load, the larger Murphy wagon was most
widely used.
	Susan Shelby Magoffin was the first woman to write of her
experiences on the Santa Fe and Chihuahua Trails.  The 18-year-
old bride of trader Samuel Magoffin, she arrived in Santa Fe in
1846, two weeks after its conquest by the American forces, and
then proceeded down the Camino Real into northern Mexico.
	Magoffin's journal, "Down the Santa Fe Trail and Into
Mexico," is full of personal details and accurate observations. 
It is one of the very few accounts written by a woman about
travel along these trails.
	Three women accompanied the Coronado expedition and 26 came
the Onate party.  However, in the long history of the Camino Real
women were rarely perceived as participating in the larger events
of the day.  Artist Jose Cisneros has honored the unsung role
Hispanic women played in Camino Real history.
	One notorious Hispanic woman--Santa Fe's cigar-smoking
gambler Dona Gertrudis Barcelo--traveled the trail many times. 
Her family came to New Mexico from Sonora, Mexico.  During the
1830s and 1840s, this wealthy and somewhat shady lady often
traveled the Camino Real, bringing back silver and gold from
Mexico for her gambling saloon in Santa Fe.
	"The common hazards of the trail drew men of different
ethnic backgrounds together and prompted a spirit of courtesy and
mutual respect.  An impression of cooperation rather than
rivalry, an atmosphere of cordial relationships and trust,
existed among the New Mexicans and the Anglo Americans involved
in the Santa Fe trade."  Marc Simmons
	In 1825, 25 wagons crossed the prairies; from then until
1843, 30-130 made the annual trip; by 1843, the number had
swelled to 230 wagons; in 1846, 300 arrived in the wake of the
Army of the West.
 
The War with Mexico, 1846
	On April 24, 1846, after a border clash near the Rio Grande,
the Mexican General Arista declared that he considered the
"hostilities commenced."  The United States official declared war
on Mexico on May 13.  The grand prize sought and won by the
victorious Americans was a vast empire stretching from Texas to
the Pacific Ocean.
	Once war was declared, the Army of the West was hastily
organized at Fort Leavenworth.  Under commander Stephen Watts
Kearny, the army left Kansas in June, accompanied by hundreds of
wagons owned by Santa Fe Traders who were seeking its protection.
	Kearny and his troops passed through Las Vegas, Tecolote and
San Miguel, and on August 18, 1846, they were able to enter and
take possession of Santa Fe without having fired a single shot. 
By sunset the American Flag flew over Santa Fe.
	A lavish fandango was held in honor of the new government. 
It "came off remarkably well, and was attended by a great crowd
of males and females."
	In September, Kearny marched rapidly down Camino Real to
Tome, mistakenly believing that Mexican forces were gathering
there to oppose him.  Upon his return to Santa Fe, he established
the new government.
	The progress of the Army of the West as it marched past the
Pueblo of San Felipe was recorded by artist John Mix Stanley.
	Kearny then marched south again, branching off the Camino
Real near present day Truth or Consequences, destined for
California.
	Santo Domingo Indian Larry Littlebird's modern day ride
recalls a memorable display witnessed by the American troops.  As
they approached Santo Domingo Pueblo, all the young men in
brilliantly colorful war dress performed warlike maneuvers on
horseback.  "Altogether one of the most thrilling exhibitions
ever witnessed!" wrote Lt. Henry Smith Turner.
 
	A caravan of 300 traders' wagons, carrying goods worth over
a million dollars, was camped alongside the Camino Real,
nervously awaiting news of the political situation before
continuing to Chihuahua with their merchandise.
	Doniphan's Missouri volunteers were rowdy, ragged and
insubordinate.  Spoiling for a fight, they finally got their
wishes, for on Christmas Day they met and defeated the Mexican
Army at Brazito on the Camino Real.  This was the only battle of
the Mexican War fought on New Mexico soil.
	The Mexican Governor Manuel Armijo had fled down the Camino
Real to the interior vastness of Mexico.
	A rare daguerreotype of about 1847 reveals the shadowy forms
of the American Volunteer Army deep in the interior of Mexico.
	The Mexican War was concluded in 1848, and under the terms
of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, consummated Feb. 2, 1848,
Mexico ceded part of southern Colorado, New Mexico, and
California to the United States.
	A regiment under the command of Col. Alexander Doniphan
enters the Jornada del Muerto, on its way south to reinforce
General Wool's troops in Mexico.  "Colonel Doniphan is six feet
four inches high--weighs about 240 pounds--raw-boned--his hair is
sort of sandy red and sticks out something like porcupine quills,
and his men say he is not afraid of the Devil or the God that
made him."
 
"Our Day is Finished"
	Once New Mexico became an American territory, the government
undertook to protect its territorial citizens from hostile
Indians.  In 1851, the whole system of defense in New Mexico was
revised.  A number of forts--Conrad, Craig, McRae, and Selden--
were built to protect travelers along the Camino Real.
	Once the Indian threat had passed, the American forts were,
one by one, abandoned.  Now they are ruins scattered on the
desert plains.
	Military life was a delicate balance between danger and
tedium.  Apaches out on the desert plains, and Navajos ranged
freely, pausing occasionally to raid the scattered river
settlements and the merchant caravans plying the Camino Real.
	The fiercest attacks in southern New Mexico and northern
Mexico were mounted by the Apaches.  These were a constant threat
to settlers and travelers alike.  In 1880, one harassed civilian
complained, "During fourteen year's residence in New Mexico I
have never seen such dangerous times."
	A pattern of never-ending raids and skirmishes marked the
interactions of the New Mexico garrisons with the Indian
warriors.  The nomads knew the wild terrain as no settlers or
soldiers ever could.
	The most famous campaigns in southern New Mexico and
Arizona, in northern Sonora and Chihuahua were led by Geronimo,
although the names most closely associated with New Mexico were
Victorio, Nana and Mangas Coloradas.  To the military the Apache
seemed treacherous and murderous, though their tactics were
admired.
	Geronimo, Victorio, and Nana were all proud victims of a
changing time.  Armed with rifles, bows and arrows, lances with
flint points and protected with shields ornamented with leopard
skins and feathers, they fought with mounting fury to defend
their stoic and demanding way of life and the country they had
long been free to roam.
	Photography appeared just as these great warriors were about
to vanish, allowing the camera's eye to capture poignant images. 
They seem so still! as if already overshadowed by the
reservations to which they would ultimately be confined!
	For their way of life was doomed.  The telegraph, the
railroad, and other technological innovations had already begun
to shrink the wilderness vastness.  When a heliograph was placed
on Robledo's highest peak, settlers could be warned of the
approach of Indian raiders.  Geronimo lamented, "If the white man
can speak with light, the Indian can do little.  Our day is
finished."
 
Southern New Mexico/Texas
	The Camino Real had long crossed over wild uninhabited land
in the southern part of New Mexico.  With the greater security
provided by American forts and with the pacification of the
Apache Indians, this area witnessed a growth in population and
the establishment of new settlements.
	The Jornada del Muerto had long been a dreaded barrier for
travelers.  "Formerly the distance across this plain from water
to water was so great that the unsuspecting emigrant, or unwary
traveler often suffered extreme torture, or perished from thirst
on the journey, should be even escape the attack of hostile
Indians."
	In 1868, when Jack Martin drilled a well near the old Camino
Real campsite of Aleman, a radical change came to this land
characterized as "practically worse than useless."  It opened the
door to cattle ranching and offered fresh hope to those anxious
to take up homesteading in southern New Mexico.
	An aerial view of Elephant Butte Reservoir, looking south
from a point near Paraje, an old Camino Real campsite.  The north
end of the Fray Cristobal Mountains is visible in the upper
center of photo.  The abandoned village of Cantarecio is in the
right foreground.  The old Santa Fe-Chihuahua Trail is along the
left side.
	The earliest reference to the Dona Ana paraje (camp site),
is Governor Otermin's notation that he camped here on Feb. 4,
1682.  However, no dwelling existed before 1842, when settlers
moved north from El Paso to settle and farm the rich bottom lands
of the Mesilla Valley.  Early habitations were mostly jacales,
built of upright sticks chinked with mud.
	Before 1680 present day Ciudad Juarez was a struggling
missionary outpost.  In 1680 refugees from the Pueblo Revolt
settled here, although a number chose to return with Vargas when
he reoccupied northern New Mexico twelve years later.  By mid-
18th century it provided a significant link between upper New
Mexico and Nueva Vizcaya to the south.  By 1773 its population
had risen to around 10,000 and it was a recognized agricultural
and ranching center.  "The settlement is by far the most
flourishing town we have been in ... with finely cultivated
fields of wheat and other small grain, and also numerous
vineyards from which were produced the finest wine ever drank." 
Lt. Zebulon Pike, 1807
	In 1849, Simeon Hart built a mill on the northern bank of
the Rio Grande near the dam where the falls of the river provided
water for many fertile acres.  The entire wheat crop from both
sides of the river was ground here and supplied flour to all the
people and to the military fort.
	Established after the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe
Hidalgo, Mesilla was to become a cultural, marketing and
political center.  Here it is shown in mid-19th century as a
pacific adobe village.
	"The Organ mountains, though somber and barren, ... near
Mesilla look at a distance like an immense pipe organ ... the
white rocks of which they are composed glisten in the sunlight
like polished metal," wrote a 19th century traveler.
	Las Cruces was founded when a request was made to the
American military to lay out a town "in truly American fashion." 
In 1828 a number of travelers, massacred on the Camino Real, were
buried by a company of Mexican soldiers who happened by.  Their
common grave was marked with three crosses--thus the name, Las
Cruces.
	Under the terms of the Gadsden Purchase enacted on Dec. 30,
1853, the United States acquired from Mexico all the land in the
southern part of the Territory of Arizona and New Mexico south of
the Gila River, thus finally defining the boundary between these
two countries.
 
The Civil War
	In 1861, Civil war broke out, dividing the United States
into Union and Confederate factions.  Early in 1862, a large
Confederate force entered New Mexico.
	When Texas seceded from the Union, the Union commander and
his forces surrendered and Ft. Bliss at El Paso was evacuated. 
Reoccupied by Confederate forces it served as a staging area to
mount a campaign against Ft. Fillmore, near present-day Las
Cruces.  Fort Fillmore was abandoned without a fight and the
entire garrison and supplies were captured by Confederates.
	Mexilla was then named capital of the newly proclaimed
Confederate Territory of Arizona.  Meanwhile, at Ft. Craig, 60
miles to the north, Union commander Colonel Edward Canby had
begun reinforcing his garrison.
	Toward the end of 1861, Brig. General Henry H. Sibley
arrived at Ft. Bliss with a large detachment of troops, with whom
he then marched to a spot near abandoned Ft. Thorn, north of
present day Hatch.
	On Feb. 7, 1862, with approximately 2,500 men and fifteen
canons, Sibley moved northward along the Camino Real to engage
the enemy.
	Awaiting him at Ft. Craig was Union commander Canby,
commanding 3,800 men, including Colonel Christopher "Kit"
Carson's 1st NM Volunteer regiment of 1,000 mostly Hispanic
soldiers from northern New Mexico.
	Battling fierce snow and dust storms, the Confederate army
advanced on Ft. Craig on February 13.  After several days of
moves and countermoves, one of the largest battles of the Civil
War erupted.
	Through the first half of the day, Feb. 21, the battle raged
indecisively among the cotton wood thickets around Valverde, a
famed campground on the Camino Real.  In the afternoon furious
charges were mounted from both sides.
	Eventually the Union forces were forced to retreat behind
the walls of Ft. Craig.  Both sides had suffered severe
casualties.
	The Confederates, short of supplies, could not remain any
longer to lay siege to Ft. Craig.  They moved northward, again
following the Camino real, until they reached Albuquerque, where
Gen. Sibley established his headquarters.
	On Mar. 28, 1862, Union and Confederate forces met again at
the Battle of Glorieta.  This time the Southern army was defeated
and eventually forced to retreat back to Texas.
 
"Hurry ... you are missing golden opportunities"
	After the close of the Mexican War and again at the
conclusion of the Civil War, the U.S. Government undertook
systematic explorations of its conquered territories.  The
Fremont, Hayden, Wheeler and Powell scientific expeditions were
launched to map this unknown land and to assess its resources.  A
new era of knowledge and awareness of the American West was
ushered in.
	Expeditionary parties, composed of soldiers, scientists,
mule skinners, packers, laborers and guides, also included
artists and photographers.  Among the expeditionary photographers
were Timothy O'Sullivan, William Henry Jackson, and John K.
Hillers.  Choosing a colorful if dangerous life, they visited new
places and recorded them in a way never before seen.
	The photographers of this period generally used the
collodion or wet place process.  The glass plate had to be used
while still wet, lest the emulsion lose its photosensitivity.  It
was placed in the camera, exposed for several seconds, then
rushed to the "dark tent," to be developed and fixed.  The entire
process was both delicate and cumbersome.  Remarkably many
beautiful images were obtained under primitive field conditions.
	John K. Hillers accompanied the Wheeler Expedition in New
Mexico in the period 1871-74, as its official photographer.  He
traveled down the Camino Real, recording life in many in many of
the Indian pueblos such as Sandia.
	The work of the scientific expeditions was included in
numerous publications, which for the first time included
photographic images.  The expeditionary photographer had come
west just in time to document many cultures and ways about to
vanish.  Ferdinand Hayden urged them to "Hurry! You are missing
golden opportunities!"
	In the late 19th century, the way was opened to the
daguerreotypist and the commercial photographer as new
settlements in the West afforded them an opportunity to make a
living.  Some established portrait studios, others traveled the
countryside as itinerant makers of stereoscopic images--meant to
be seen through a special viewer which gave an illusion of three-
dimensional depth.
	The earliest photographers known by name in Santa Fe were
Nicolas Brown and his son, Henry William Brown.  They opened a
studio after their arrival from St. Louis in 1866.  They were to
travel up and down the Camino Real a number of times.  Their
first trip took them to Chihuahua where they also established a
business.  In 1868, Nicolas returned to Santa Fe, followed a year
later by his son.  In 1870, Nicolas made a second trip south,
while Henry, who may also have traveled to Parral in Mexico, is
known to have spent two years photographing in El Paso around
1884.
 
Artists and the American West
	Artists were in the vanguard of the westward movement. 
George Catlin, Alfred Jacob Miller, Karl Bodmer and others drew
unparalleled images of Plains Indian life.
	John Mix Stanley (1814-72) was one of the first to picture
the Southwest.  He had joined a trading expedition, and arrived
in Santa Fe shortly after Kearny's conquest of the city. 
Appointed its official artist, Stanley left with part of the army
for California in 1846.  Heading down the Camino Real he passed
San Felipe Pueblo and at Isleta Pueblo sketched 'a very beautiful
woman.'
	Near the Fray Cristobal Mountains, the Army of the West left
the Camino Real and headed west, through the Mimbres Valley. 
Stanley sketched along the way.  Many of his drawings were
included as lithographs in Emory's "Notes of a Military
Reconnoissance" (sic) published in 1848.  The lithographs failed
to do justice to the quality of the original drawings, most of
which were unfortunately destroyed in a fire.  The few that
survive attest to his skill as an artist.
	The Kern brothers, Benjamin, Richard and Edward, accompanied
the 1848 Fremont expedition as scientist and artists.  After a
dreadful winter lost in the San Juan Mountains, the Kerns finally
stumbled into Taos.  Richard Kern left behind a stunning visual
record of his travels in New Mexico and down the Camino Real into
Mexico.
	When the railroad made the journey more accessible, two
great artists visited New Mexico: Peter Moran and his more famous
brother, Thomas.
	Peter was in Taos, Santa Fe, Jemez, and Santo Domingo in the
1880s and again in 1890.  He was fascinated by the architecture,
the animals, and the picturesque quality of the Southwest.
	His brother Thomas did not feel the same fascination for New
Mexico, preferring Yellowstone and the Grand Canyon.  On a trip
to New Mexico in 1881, in the company of William Henry Jackson,
the famous photographer, Moran sketched the old adobe church at
Ojo Caliente.  A decade later, on his way to the Grand Canyon, he
stopped to make this stunning painting of Acoma Pueblo, with
Spanish Conquistadores riding across a romantic, colorful New
Mexico landscape, thus bringing back in memory those who had
first opened the Camino Real.
 
The Expressmen
	The earliest mail along the Camino Real depended on the
annual caravans to carry both ordinary and official mail,
although special messengers were used for urgent dispatches.
	After 1766 the postal service was administered in New Spain
by the royal treasury.  Each post office had its own mail pouch
and postal seal and couriers were permitted to accept mail along
the road at haciendas and other points.
	In 1783 Governor de Anza established a regular mail delivery
between Santa Fe and El Paso.  By 1805 the postal service was
operating on a fairly regular schedule.  Ten years later a
monthly postal service had been established.  By 1840 Indian
depredations disrupted the service.  "The buckboard mail has
stopped running and mail is being carried on horseback on account
of the danger."
	With the stagecoach came men who preyed on them.
	"Whereas the coach containing the U.S. Mails and Express was
on the 18th robbed near Alamillo (on the Camino Real) in Socorro
County and whereas it is known that three persons were engaged in
the said robbery who are believed to be desperate men.  Now
therefore, I, G.B. Axtell, Gov. of said Territory do hereby offer
a reward of $500.00 for the apprehension of said men to be taken
alive if possible..."  New Mexico, April 30, 1877.
	No public coaches ever came up Camino Real during the
Spanish and Mexican administrations; however, late in the 19th
century stagecoaches began to appear in New Mexico, and they
carried the mail.
	One of the first stage lines to arrive in New Mexico came
via San Antonio and El Paso.  "Big Foot" Wallace, formerly a
courier on the Santa Fe Trail and subsequently a Chihuahua
trader, was employed by Henry Skillman, the first contractor of
record to transport mails between San Antonio, Texas and Santa Fe
in 1850.
	Skillman, in September, 1852, began offering passenger
service every other month in 'good, comfortable spring carriages'
between Santa Fe and El Paso.  On alternate months a 'small train
of light wagons' gave the communities monthly service.
	Thomas F. Bowler of Santa Fe became proprietor of the
interior New Mexico route which closely followed the ancient
Camino Real.  A Way Bill for this route included the names of
passengers, their destination, and the amount they paid for their
trip.
	By all accounts, a prolonged stage ride was crowded,
uncomfortable, and often cold.  Passengers sat bolt upright
trying to catch a few winks of sleep.
 
Wheels of Wood & Iron
	Even after the coming of the railroad in the late 19th
century, the old Camino Real continued to be used by many
different kinds of wheeled vehicles.
	In some places the Camino Real retained its romantic, rural
character.
	A remarkable assortment of wheeled vehicles--an ambulance, a
mud wagon, a stage coach, the descendant of a Mexican carreta--
are all parked in front of a hotel in Las Cruces.
	A winsome burro-drawn cart!
	This traveling Circus which featured people in Mickey-Mouse
ears and a Pie-faced Lion, was photographed in Las Vegas in 1898. 
Hopefully it continued onto Santa Fe and down the Camino Real. 
It recalls those circus troupes of Maromeros which earlier
traveled up from Mexico.
	Surveyors for the railroad, for the telegraph, as well as
crews such as the one which accompanied the photographer William
Henry Jackson, must often have camped alongside the Camino.
	Out on lonelier stretches of roads, wagons plied the route. 
The man with a boat on his wagon was obviously prepared for any
contingency!
	The Atchinson, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad began running to
Las Vegas on July 4, 1879.  By February 16, 1880 it had reached
Santa Fe; by April 15, Albuquerque; and by the end of the year
the southern part of the state.  It was joined to the Ferrocarril
Central Mexicano from El Paso del Norte which stretched to
Chihuahua and eventually onto Mexico City.
	While this photo of laying track was taken in Arizona many
similar scenes must have taken place as well in New Mexico.
	Trains equipped with reclining-seat chair cars and luxurious
Pullman sleeping cars reduced the once arduous journey to a
comfortable interlude.  The old Camino Real gradually fell into
disuse and soon was lost from memory.
 
The Trail Today
	The railroad, the automobile and the beginnings of the
modern highway system brought enormous changes in their wake. 
The first highway in New Mexico was designated #1 and called El
Camino Real.  Now modern paved highways carry the north-south
commerce that once traversed the historic Camino by foot,
horseback, muletrain and in the great colonial carretas pulled by
teams of oxen.
	As part of the 1992 Columbus Quincentenary Commemorations,
the New Mexico Highway and Transportation Department, in
collaboration with the Camino Real Project, has placed a series
of distinctive highway markers on those routes which most closely
parallel the ancient Camino Real, thus inviting the modern
traveler to revisit the past in imagination.
	Except where covered by modern roads and developments,
vestiges of the Camino Real remain imprinted on the landscape,
often defined by a wide corrugated swale etched by the passage of
countless wagons and mule trains.
	Remnants of the trail, which all lie on private property,
still exist.  Archeologist Michael Marshall was given special
permission to visit and study these sites.  The configuration of
the trail itself and the artifacts scattered nearby provide
indispensable knowledge about this fascinating aspect of New
Mexico history.
 
	This exhibit was developed by the Camino Real Project in
cooperation with the Latin American Institute, University of New
Mexico, with generous support from the National Endowment for the
Humanities.
 
Project Director/Chief Curator: Gabrielle G. Palmer, Ph.D.
Project Coordinator: Theo R. Crevenna
Assistant Curators: Barbara Remington, Tim Rogers
Program Specialist: Vicki Madrid Nelson
 
Exhibit Designer: William Field, Santa Fe, New Mexico.
 
Exhibit Production: Unified Arts, Albuquerque, New Mexico.
 
	Additional support was received from The New Mexico
Endowment for the Humanities, the New Mexico Highway and
Transportation Department, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
and the U.S. Bureau of Land Management.
	The contributions of the following scholars are gratefully
acknowledged (in alphabetical order):
 
     Don E. Alberts, John O. Baxter, Mary Jean Cook, Vernon
     J. Glover, Rick Hendricks, Julia Jordan, John Kessell,
     Morton Liebman, Michael Marshall (Chief Project
     Archeologist), Gilbert W. Merkx, Carroll L. Riley,
     Richard Rudisill, Albert H. Shroeder, Dan Scurlock,
     Marc Simmons, David H. Snow, Olivia Tsosie, David R.
     Warren, and Robert R. White