American Historical Association--One hundred and fourth Annual Meeting December 27-30, 1989 Session number 72 The Encounter of Cultures in Sixteenth-Century Mexico Jose Rabasa University of Maryland at College Park This paper has the dual intent of describing an 1989 NEH Summer Institute organized by the Department of Spanish and Portuguese at the University of Maryland at College Park, and suggesting how the structure of the Institute might provide a model for undergraduate courses as well as graduate seminars. At the end I provide a bibliography in English divided into the five main topics of the Institute's seminars. Our Summer Institute on "The Encounter of Cultures in Sixteenth-Century Mexico" was held for two weeks in Mexico City and the remaining three in Oaxaca. While most of the participants, mainly those whose specialty is Mexico, were able to benefit from the archives, libraries, and bookstores, and to establish contacts with Mexican intellectuals, the whole group took advantage of the field experience to enhance their course materials not only with an invaluable first hand knowledge of the sites but with a feeling for the Mexican peoples living in Mesoamerica today. The participants' fields of expertise included Art History, Geography, Spanish Modern History, European Medieval History, Linguistics, Native American Studies, English, and Spanish. Though this last group was the largest, mainly because it was the Maryland Department of Spanish and Portuguese which organized the Institute and consequently drew the attention of scholars from this field, it was far from being homogeneous. It included both specialist in Peninsular and Spanish American literatures whose main research quite often had been in other periods and areas of Latin America. However, all participants shared a commitment to teaching undergraduate courses with a substantial component on the encounter of cultures in sixteenth-century Mexico. Most of the designed courses generally fall under the rubric of Latin American Civilization and Culture, however, some of the syllabi propose specific topics such as "Violence and Resistance in the Americas" and "Ethnography and Testimonial Literature." I am emphasizing the immediate teaching benefits from the Institute not to undermine the cutting-edge scholarship that will certainly result from it, but to highlight the general interest in intro- ducing new knowledges and a cross-disciplinary approach to the undergraduate curriculum. Several workshops in the course of the Institute where dedicated not only to sharing teaching strategies but also to expanding bibliographies and broadening perspectives on the topics discussed in the seminars and lectures of the corresponding week. The five themes of the Institute were: "European and Indigenous Versions of the Conquest of Mexico," "New Sources for the History of Daily Life," "Archaeological History of the Valley of Oaxaca," "Ethnography, Conversion, Resistance," and "Picture Writing and Nahuatl Literacy." Although each of these topics could be approached from a variety of disciplines, the assigned readings often reflected this potential and for instance called for the discussion of a piece of literary criticism by a social historian, each week was taught with an emphasis on the discipline of the faculty leading the seminar. Thus Stephanie Wood, from the University of Oregon, taught the first week on European and indigenous versions of the Conquest mainly as a social historian; during the second week, Jorge Klor de Alva, from Princeton University, developed an anthropological approach, i.e., ethnographic history, to new sources for the history of daily life; Arthur Miller, from the University of Maryland, as an art historian who has done extensive archaeological work in Oaxaca taught us quite literally how to read pictorial artifacts from both the colonial and precolumbian periods; I addressed the issue of ethnography, conversion and resistance from the point of view of literary history; and finally, Frances Karttunen, from the University of Texas, traced the transition from picture writing to Nahuatl literacy from a linguistic approach. In what follows I will very briefly highlight some of the leading questions and knowledges that these scholars as representatives of their disciplines brought to bear on our understanding of the encounter of cultures in sixteenth-century Mexico. Stephanie Wood led us into the knowledge of the colonial period that has become possible mainly as a result of the publications and insistence on research based on documents in Nahuatl by Arthur Anderson, Frances Berdan, Frances Karttunen, and James Lockhart, just to mention those who have collaborated in such influential books as Beyond the Codices, Nahuatl in the Middle Years, and The Tlaxcalan Actas. S.L. Cline's Colonial Culhuacan, 1580-1600: A Social History of an Aztec Town would be an example of the new social history that young scholars are writing using Nahuatl documents. The shift of emphasis from Spanish to indigenous documents is expanding not only the sources, but also our understanding of how the Nahuas of the colonial period viewed the Spanish conquest as well as how they accommodated themselves to the new colonial order. In particular, Wood shared with us her work on the represen- tation of the conquest and evangelization in indigenous docu- ments, the primordial titles or titulos, laying claims to lands and the political legitimacy of local elites. This material will be published in her forthcoming article in Ethnohistory, "Accepting the Sword and Cross? Views of Spanish Conquest in Indian Titulos of Colonial Mexico." The titulos were written by and for Indians. Although they often ended up in court, they were primarily written as a history of local consciousness for their sons and future generations. These documents are mainly located in the Archivo General de la Nacion, in small parishes, and town governments. From the point of view of the encounter, the titulos often represent Cortes visiting the towns in bene- volent terms. Generally, they seek to strengthen the identity of the town and insist that its territorial claims and its local elite have been officially recognized. There is apparently no resentment of tribute payed to Spaniards, and the main events of the towns's histories would generally dwell on the destruction of heathen temples, the introduction of baptism, and the construc- tion of the town church--the latter, as Wood pointed out, became the new heart of the community. Resistance is rare and when there is a negative view of Spaniards it is towards the individual intruder, to whom land should never be sold. On the basis of these new documents, which often date back to written or oral accounts from the sixteenth century that evolved through generations of amendments and recopying, Wood was able to trace for us an evolution of the consciousness from the very early (1523) indigenous accounts of the conquest as a destruction of the old order, in an anonymous relation of the fall of Tenochtitlan or the later indigenous history in Sahagun's Book XII of the Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain, to the accommodating view in the titulos which served to legitimize the landholdings of the communities and often the preeminence of one of the elite lineages. Whether the commoners, the macehuales, shared this view or if they aligned themselves with outsiders through compadrasgo or simply sold them their land in desperate need, and up to what point their acceptance of the conquest and evangelization were means to assert their tradi- tional ways of life are questions that Wood calls for further research. The seminar on "New Sources for a History of Daily Life" was approached by Jorge Klor de Alva from the point of view of ethno- graphic history. Klor de Alva discussed his studies of Bernardino de Sahagun as an early modern ethnographer, as well as his more recent work on the transformations of the "self" in the processes of conversion and the adoption of Classical Nahuatl as the official language of the colonized. Klor de Alva's reading of Sahagun in light of recent critiques of anthropology by James Clifford, George Marcus, Johannes Fabian, among others, by placing the beginnings of anthropology and indeed an early instance of experimental ethno- graphy in the context of missionary efforts, entails a revision of such classic accounts of the origins of anthropology as Margaret Hodgen's Early Anthropology of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, which by definition disqualify a mission- ary like Sahagun as a legitimate anthropologist. Klor de Alva's edition with H.B. Nicholson and Eloise Quinones Keber of The Work of Fray Bernardino de Sahagun: Pioneer Ethnographer of Sixteenth-Century Aztec Mexico provides a collection of essays on the ideology, ethnography, iconography and linguistics of the whole sahaguntian corpus by such beginning scholars like Louise Burkhard and other established figures as Charles E. Dibble, George Baudot, and Arthur J.O. Anderson. For the second seminar on the transformations of the "self," Klor de Alva adopted Michel Foucault's distinction between the Classical Greek and early Christian modes of moral self-formation in volume two of The History of Sexuality: The Uses of Pleasure. Foucault's distinction enabled Klor de Alva to differentiate an ethical substance in precolumbian times where an equilibrium of desire was sought from the Christian obliteration of all earthly desire. Moreover, among the Nahuas there was no autonomous will at the core of the self since every human being was a microcosm reflecting the forces that made up the cosmos at large, whereas Roman Catholicism rests on the premise of free will and the individual subject as the moral agent. The third theme in Klor de Alva's seminars was the constitu- tion of Classical Nahuatl as the language of the colonized. Classical Nahuatl was restricted to the confessionaries, doc- trines and other documents produced by the missionaries, often in close collaboration with trilingual indigenous collegians from the College of Santa Cruz de Tlalteloco. Notarial documents used the vernacular Nahuatl of the macehualtin, the commoners. Classical Nahuatl provided a norm to define what was the correct, pure speech, however, it was vernacular nahuatl that enhanced the local communities' capacities to pursue their own interests in the new socio-political order. Classical Nahuatl paradoxically was the most important vehicle of acculturation. According to Klor de alva there was a third language of divination that ostensively was used to communicate with supernatural beings. This last language most aptly fits the ironic trope, a space where nothing is as it seems in colonial contexts--hence, the language of resistance par excellence. For the third week of the Institute we moved to the city of Oaxaca. We were fortunate to have lectures on Oaxacan archae- ology as well as guided visits to Monte Alban and Mitla by such prominent archaeologist as Marcus Winter and John Paddock. From both we learned about the most recent archaeological findings, and in the case of Monte Alban we were able to witness the on-going excavation of an area and thus to become familiar with field procedures in archaeology. I must mention that in Mexico City we were privileged with lectures and guided visits to the excavations and the museum of the Templo Mayor by its director Eduardo Matos Moctezuma. The benefits of these very unique settings can best be summed up by an observation in one of the participants' evaluations of the Institute: "The participants will be more fully able to imbue their scholarship and classroom instruction with a sense of place not easily acquired in libraries." The seminar for this week was taught by Arthur Miller. As an art historian Miller taught us the methods by which one goes beyond the descriptive face of the archaeologist, well known for their reluctance to speculate about the meanings of artifacts. Miller's seminar dwelt on such questions as how does image and text interrelate and what is the process by which that inter- relation changes over time? The subject matter included painted and sculpted icons and scripts found in funerary contexts, in particular Tomb 7 of Monte Alban where he has done his most recent research. As a preparation for the discussion of Tomb 7, Miller spent some time evaluating historical and ethnographic data as sources for interpreting prehispanic visual and verbal statements. In combination with rigorous iconological and glyphic analyses, Miller was able to show how Tomb 7 provides insights into the ritual and daily life of Oaxaca's prehispanic peoples. Another topic in his seminars was the production of Codex Selden in the colonial period. Although Codex Selden replicates prehispanic pictographic and ideographic writing styles, Miller provided a reading of a fragment that seemingly betrayed a tragic emplotment and hero, thus suggesting European influence on the level of content. Lastly Miller shared with the seminar his current research on the adoption of the alphabet and the transformations of time and space in indigenous maps. This line of research by Miller is closely related to the work of Serge Gruzinski, in particular, La colonization de l'imaginaire. I approached the topic "Ethnography, Conversion, Resistance from the perspective of literary history. In recent years the literary study of New World chronicles has passed from a tradi- tional reading and ascription of fiction to a canonical list of chronicles to more refined analyses of the rhetorical and his- toriographical models informing sixteenth century historical writing. However, if the humanist historiographical model in the sixteenth century prescribed a providential concept of history, eloquence and good tone, a courtly morality, and an elegant style, to insist to much on these aesthetic formalisms would lead us to ignore their function within the colonial enterprise: i.e., that there are new values, meanings, and functions in the providential schemes, for instance among millenarian Franciscans, where the ultimate referent of history is not Europe anymore; that the good tone and courtly morals convey, beyond rhetorical formulas, another mode of violence and conquest; or that the elegant style implies a cultural appropriation of narrative forms that follow other poetics. These shifts of orientation ultimately reveal the new functions writing assumes in the chroniclers of Indies. The most salient feature of what might be called the new scriptural economy of the Renaissance is the understanding of writing and history as a practice for changing the world, and not any longer as a record or memory of an exemplary past. A series of texts spanning over the first hundred years of the Spanish colonization of Mexico enabled us to assess the practice, nature, and efficacy of conversion to catholicism, document different conceptuali- zation of indigenous religious beliefs, and trace patterns in the transformation of the native cultures. The seminars I conducted explored three main questions: 1) How are ethnography, conver- sion and resistance articulated in terms of syncretism and the formation of a colonial subject? 2) What rhetorical devices inform the writing of Nahua culture? 3) What epistemological transformations underlie the trajectory from early representa- tions of a highly civilized Nahua to a later ignorant Indian? In response to the first, these documents reveal how a colonial subject was constituted as a problematic neophyte, indeed, as one that by the fact of being Indian could never fully shed its heathen beliefs; to the second, the writing of Nahua culture, mainly as a result of the collaboration of informants and collegians in such histories as Sahagun's Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain, provides a space were ethnicity inscribes itself, in spite of the avowed intention to build an arsenal to ward off the devil and the systematic register of indigenous cultures as inferior, if not plainly evil; to the third, a whole set of scientific criteria that define objectivity and empiricity, not necessarily in the terms of our present day definitions of science, gain prominence after the Council of Trent as a means of defining indigenous knowledges and a whole array of everyday practices as superstitious and inspired by the devil. The essays collected by Rene Jara and Nicholas Spadaccini in Re/Discovering Colonial Writing, 1492-1992, Hispanic Issues 4 (1989) and by Rolena Adorno and Walter Mignolo in the forthcoming special issue on Colonial Discourse of Dispositio XIV (1989) are representative of recent literary studies of colonial texts. Frances Karttunen introduced the topic "Picture Writing and Nahuatl Literacy" by examining the precontact indigenous approach to writing and record keeping in Mesoamerica. Karttunen began her discussion with the seminal work by Joyce Marcus, "The Origins of Mesoamerican Writing," and more recent studies in the Mayan area in Linda Schele and Mary Ellen Miller's The Blood of the Kings and Victoria Bricker's A Grammar of Mayan Hieroglyphs. Karttunen also dwelt briefly on the polemic between Charles Dibble and H.B. Nicholson over phoneticism in central Mexico. The central pieces are Dibble's "Writing in Central Mexico" in the Handbook of Middle American Indians, vol 10, and Nicholson's "Phoneticism in the Late Pre-Hispanic Central Mexican Writing System," in Elizabeth Benson, ed., Mesoamerican Writing Systems. These studies on the scriptural tradition in Mesoamerica enabled Karttunen to explain why alphabetical writing spread so vastly in Mesoamerican and not in the Andean region. Her explanation centered on the premise that there is an inherent tendency in scripts to progress from pictographs to ideographs, to phonetic (syllabic) script and finally to alphabetical writing. But as Karttunen pointed out, despite the ready adoption of alphabetical writing by such Nahuatl speaking professionals as the assistants of Sahagun and town notaries throughout Mesoamerica, the pictorial tradition continued on into the colonial period. Karttunen discussed the reasons for the considerable output of pictorial documents with minimal European influence, but also the production of pictorial catechisms and the use of picture writing in confessions in the early days of the evangelization. All these documents are indispensable not only for under- standing the evangelization processes and the use of Spanish courts by Indians, but also for deciphering glyphs. Progress, specially in the understanding of Maya glyphs, is, however, mainly a result of reconstructions by linguists of spoken language at the time of the inscriptions. On the other hand, Karttunen also shared with us how her work in linguistics suggests a continuation into the present of what one may call the Mesoamerican world view. Central to Karttunen's thesis is the survival of Mesoamerica as ethnically and linguistically rich but culturally very uniform. Among the crucial interpretations of the world from an indigenous Mesoamerican world view, Karttunen has charted a body of literature that has moved from the pioneer- ing work of Miguel Leon-Portilla on Aztec thought to the ethno- graphic, linguistic, and ethnohistorical work of such scholars like Evon Vogst, Victoria Bricker, Nancy Farris, Dennis and Barbara Tedlock, John Bierhorst, Henning Siverts, and Jane and Kenneth Hill. Due to time constraints I can just limit myself to naming them. However, the importance of their work is well summed up by Karttunen in her recent article "After the Conquest. The Survival of Indigenous Patterns of Life and Belief": "Given all these sources, it becomes possible and indeed requisite to try to understand the descendants of the Aztecs and all the Mesoamericans on their own terms, while giving close scrutiny to the terms we are accustomed to use in talking about them and the framework we could impose upon our perceptions of them" (3). This last indication might serve as a guideline for under- graduate courses dwelling on the encounter of cultures in sixteenth-century Mexico. Karttunen reminds us about the survival of a Mesoamerican world view, but her insistence on attending to our modes of thinking reminds us that the encounter is still very much a history of the present and that this issue should ultimately come to bear on our teaching and reflection on the significance of Columbus's voyage to the New World. Although the five seminars, as I have outlined above, could very well serve as a model for a graduate seminar, the intent of the Institute was precisely to provide a series of readings that would sensibilize us to the ethical implications in the subject matter and help us develop teaching strategies, topics, and materials for undergraduates. To Karttunen's indication I would add that it is perhaps the moment to start talking less about "us/knowers" and "them/objects of knowledge," and start finding ways of listening to the indigenous peoples of the Americas as subjects of history. In this respect I Rigoberta Menchu: An Indian Woman from Guatemala might serve as a point of departure. However, the documents that Karttunen, Lockhart and others have made available, where Stephanie Wood's materials deserve special mention, should remind us that Indians have kept their own history for the last five hundred years. As Michel de Certeau has pointed out, the Indians, "[d]ominated but not vanquished, they keep alive the memory of what the Europeans have 'forgotten'--a continuous series of uprisings and awakenings which have left hardly a trace in the occupiers' historio- graphical literature" (Certeau 227). SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY IN ENGLISH I) European and Indigenous Versions of the Conquest Adorno, Rolena. "Discourses on Colonialism: Bernal Diaz, Las Casa, and the Twentieth-Century Reader." Modern Language Notes 103:2 (March 1988): 239-258. Anderson, Arthur J. O., Frances Berdan, and James Lockhart, eds. Beyond the Codices: The Nahua View of Colonial Mexico. Berkeley and Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Series 27, University of California Press, 1976. Cline, S.L. "Revisionist Conquest History: Sahagun's Revised Book XII." In Jorge Klor de Alva, H.B. Nicholson, and Eloise Quinones-Keber, eds. The Work of Bernardino de Sahagun: Pioneer Ethnographer of Sixteenth-Century Mexico. Albany and Austin: Institute of Mesoamerican Studies and University of Texas, 1988. Cortes, Hernan. Letters from Mexico. Tr. Anthony Padgen. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1986. Duran, Diego de. The Aztecs: The History of the Indies of New Spain. Tr. Doris Heyden and Fernando Horcasitas. New York: Orion Press, 1964. Diaz del Castillo, Bernal. The Conquest of Mexico. Tr. J. M. Cohen. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin, 1963. Karttunen, Frances. Nahuatl in the Middle Years: Language Contact Phenomena in Texts of the Colonial Period. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1976. Leon Portilla, Miguel. Broken Spears. Tr. Lysander Kemp. Boston: Beacon Press, 1962. Lockhart, James, Frances Berdan, and Arthur J. O. Anderson, eds. The Tlaxcalan Actas: A Compendium of Records of the Cabildo of Tlaxcala (1545-1627). Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1986. Merrim, Stephanie. "Ariadne's Thread: Autobiography, History and Cortes' Segunda Carta-Relacion." Dispositio XI 103:2 (1986): 57-83. Sahagun, Bernardino de. Book XII: The conquest of Mexico. In Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain, 13 vols., vol. 12. Tr. Arthur J. O. Anderson and Charles Dibble. Salt Lake City: School of American Research and University of Utah Press, 1950-1982. Wood, Stephanie. "Accepting the Sword Spanish Conquest in Indian Titulos of Colonial Mexico." Ethnohistory, forthcoming. Zorita, Alonso de. Life and Labor In Ancient Mexico: The Brief and Summary Relation of the Lords on New Spain. Tr. Benjamin Keen. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1963. II) New Sources for a History of Daily Life Altman, Ida, and James Lockhart, eds., Provinces of Early Mexico. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center, 1976. Borah, Woodrow. "Some Problems of Sources." In H.R. Harvey and H. Prem, eds. Explorations in Ethnohistory: Indians Of Central Mexico in the Sixteenth Century. Alburquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984. Cline, S.L. Colonial Culhuacan, 1580-1600: A Social History of an Aztec Town. Alburquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1986. Collier, George A., Renato I. Rosaldo, and John D. Wirth, eds. The Inca and Aztec States, 1400-1800: Anthropology and History. New York: Academic Press, 1982. Gibson, Charles. The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1964. Karttunen, Frances, and James Lockhart, eds., The Art of Nahuatl Speech: The Bancroft Dialogues. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center, 1987. Klor de Alva, Jorge. "Sahagun and the Birth of Modern Ethno- graphy: Representing, Confessing, and Inscribing the Native Other." In Klor de Alva, Nicholson, and Quinones-Keber, eds. The Work of Bernardino de Sahagun. _________. "Language, Politics, and Translation: Colonial Discourse and Classic Nahuatl in New Spain." In Rosanna Warren, ed. The Art of Translation; Voices from the Field. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1989. Lockhart, James, and Stuart Schwartz. Early Latin America: A History of Colonial Spanish America and Brazil. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Lopez Austin, Alfredo. The Human Body and Ideology: Concepts of the Ancient Nahuas. Tr. Thelma Ortiz de Montellano and Bernard Ortiz de Montellano. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1988. Sweet, David, and Gary Nash, eds. Struggle and l in Survival in Colonial America. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1981. Taylor, William B. Drinking, Homicide and Rebellion in Colonial Mexican Villages. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1979. III) Archaeological History of the Valley of Oaxaca Caso, Alfonso. "Sculpture and Mural Painting of Oaxaca." In Handbook of Middle American Indians, pt 2, vol. 3. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1965. _______. "Zapotec Writing and Calendar." In Handbook of Middle American Indians, pt 2, vol. 3. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1965. Chance, John K. "Colonial Ethnohistory of Oaxaca." In Supplement to the Handbook of Middle American Indians, vol 4. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986. Lind, M., and Javier Urcid. "The Lords of Lambityeco and their Nearest Neighbors." Notas Mesoamericanas (Otono 1983): 79-111. Marcus, Joyce. " Archaeology and Religion: A Comparison of the Zapotec and Maya." World Archaeology 10:2 (1978): 172-191. ________. "Zapotec Writing." Scientific American (Feb. 1980): 50-64. Miller, Arthur. "'Captains of the Itza': Unpublished Mural Evidence from Chichen Itza." In Social Process in Maya Prehistory: Studies in Memory of Sir Eric Thompson. New York: Academic Press, 1977. ________. "Pre-Hispanic Mural Painting in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico." National Geographic Research 4:2 (1988): 233-258. Paddock, John. "Mixteca-Puebla Style in the Valley of Oaxaca." In Aspects of the Mixteca Puebla Style and Mixtec and Central Mexican Culture in Southern Mesoamerica. Middle American Research Institute Occasional Paper 4. New Orleans: Middle American Research Institute, Tulane University, 1982. Spores, Ronald. "The Buildup of Mixtec Power." In Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, eds. The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations. New York: Academic Press, 1983. Winter, Marcus C. "Residential Patterns at Monte Alban, Oaxaca, Mexico." Science 186: 4168 (Dec. 1974): 981-987. 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"Literacy and Colonization: The New World Experience." In Jara and Spadaccini, eds. 1492-1992: Re/Discovering Colonial Writing: 263-289. Motolinia, Fray Toribio de Benavente. History of the Indians of New Spain. Tr. Elizabeth Andros Foster. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1973. Menchu, Rigoberta. I, Rigoberta Menchu: An Indian Woman from Guatemala. Ed. Elizabeth Burgos-Debray, and tr. Ann Wright. London: Verso Editions, 1983. Rabasa, Jose. "Dialogue as Conquest: Mapping Spaces for Counter-Discourse." Cultural Critique 6 (Spring 1987): 131-159. _________. "Utopian Ethnology in Las Casas's Apologetica." In Jara and Spadaccini, eds. 1492-1992: Re/Discovering Colonial Writing: 263-289. Ruiz de Alarcon, Hernando. Treatise on the Heathen Superstitions That Today Live Among the Indians of This New Spain, 1629. Tr. J. Richard Andrews and Ross Hassig. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1984. Sahagun, Bernardino de. Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain, 13 vols. Tr. Arthur J. O. Anderson and Charles Dibble. Salt Lake City: School of American Research and University of Utah Press, 1950-1982, History from Sahagun's Spanish version of the General History of the Things of New Spain. Nashville: Fisk University Press, 1932. ____________. Prologues, exclamations and comments to the Books. Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain, vol. 13. V) Picture Writing and Nahuatl Literacy Bricker, Victoria. "The Nature of Maya Script." In her A Grammar of Mayan Hieroglyphs. Middle American Research Institute publication 56. New Orleans: Middle American Research Institute, Tulane University, 1986. Dibble, Charles. "Writing in Central Mexico." In Handbook of Middle American Institute, vol 10. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1971. Glass, John. "A Census of Middle American Testerian Manuscripts." In Handbook of Middle American Indians, vol. 14, Austin: University of Texas Press, 1975. Gruzinski, Serge. "Colonial Indian Maps in Sixteenth Century Mexico." Res 13 (1987): 46-61. Karttunen, Frances. "After the Conquest. The Survival of Indigenous Patterns of Life and Belief." Texas papers on Latin America. Pre-publication papers of the Institute of Latin American Studies. University of Texas. Paper no. 89-09. _________. "Nahuatl Literacy." In Colliere, Rosaldo, and Wirth, eds Inca and Aztec States 1400-1800. Marcus, Joyce. "The Origins of Mesoamerican Writing." Annual Review of Anthropology 1976: 35-67. Nicholson, H.B. "Phoneticism in the Late Pre-Hispanic Central Mexican Writing System." In Elizabeth P. Benson ed. Meso- american Writing Systems. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collections, 1973. Robertson, Donald. Mexican Manuscript Painting of the Early Colonial Period. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959. Schele, Linda, and Mary Ellen Miller. "The Maya Hieroglyphic Writing System." In their The Blood of Kings: Dynasty and Ritual in Maya Art. Fort Worth: Kimbell Art Museum, 1986. RABASA01.SPC