Jennifer Glass
CUSR1819
     Metalsmithing in Peru: from the Chavin to the Inca
     
     Treasures from the past can be found from almost all ancient
civilizations, and those from Peru are no exception.  It is here
that archaeologists have found such treasures as buildings,
pottery, and metalwork.  The Spanish invaders are responsible for
their destruction.  Metalwork is probably the most ravaged art
form from this period.  Pottery was smashed, some buildings were
torn down, but works from metal, typically gold and silver, were
thrown into smelters and melted down to take back to the king. 
Nowhere is this as well documented than from the time that
Pizarro invaded Peru and raped the Inca of their gold and silver. 
Inca metalwork was based on a history of metalsmithing in Peru. 
It is my aim to cover some of the stylistic and technical
advances towards what can be seen in the work of the Incas.  From
there, I will give some examples of how the Spaniards destroyed
most of what existed.  
     As did other cultures, the natives of Peru liked the way
that gold and silver looked.  These Peruvians, as with many of
the other cultures of this pre-Columbian land, never coined these
metals, or used them as a "...primary medium of exchange."
(Emmerich, 169).  To the Incas, they had a divine origin, based
in their most important deity, the sun.  They believed that it
was a gift of the gods that symbolized the light of the sun. 
Other sources say that the Inca thought of "...gold as 'the sweat
of the sun,' and silver as 'the tears of the moon.'" (Benson et
al, 169).  The story of the use of metal as an art form starts
centuries before the Inca. 
     The earliest known evidence of the use of metal as an art
form comes from the oldest high civilization in the Andes which
began around 1200 BC., the Chavin style.  The style gets its name
from the present day site, Chavin de Huantar, which is located in
northern Peru.  "From the various groups of buildings, the
contents of graves, and the refuse from different periods, it is
clear that this was a place of pilgrimage..." (Keleman, 40).  In
fact, some authors suggest that this area, in its apex, was a
primary religious "...and cultur[al] -- and therefore artistic --
center of the greatest importance." (Stierlin, 119).  Their
religion was based on their natural surroundings, and their gods
were those of the forces of nature.  The sun was probably the
major one, and in metal, a deity of feline features is often
represented.
     When it came to metalsmithing, the Chavin used only gold for
their pieces, and there is no evidence that they knew how to
alloy metals.  Their primary metal techniques were limited to
hammering out nuggets of pure gold, probably obtained from the
river Callejon de Huaylas, into sheets of metal.  From here, the
sheets would be embossed -- a technique in metal known as
repousse -- with a design.  Typically, these designs were quite
intricate, involving interlacing lines and stylized figures (see
figure 1).  "...The stylized feline, often symbolized by the
prominent incisor teeth of the jaguar, is one of the touchstones
of Chavin art." (Emmerich, 3-4).  The Chavin possessed, and were
limited to, such technical skills as: fusing, annealing, raising,
and strap joining.  The ability to anneal and the ability to
"raise" flat sheets of metal into a bowl is evident in Figure 2. 
Without the knowledge of annealing (heating a metal to its
critical point in order to restore its malleability) these bowls
would have never been more than flat pieces of metal.  All of
these techniques, first used by the Chavin, were used throughout
the coming cultures and styles.  The image of the jaguar also
reappears in future styles.   
     The Mochica, a tribe from the Northern Coast of Peru, near
present day Trujillo, made large advances in the field of
metallurgy.  They, unlike the Chavin, used silver and copper as
well as gold, and were able to alloy these metals.  So, in this
period, which ranged from about AD. 1 to about the fifth century
AD., and in those to follow, all that appears gold is not
necessarily solid gold.  The Mochica shared the symbol of the
jaguar with the Chavin (figure 3). "...[He] had feline canines
and a belt with snake head extensions." (Benson et al, 189).  A
better example of the skill that the Mochica possessed is found
in portraiture in metal. The example that I have chosen (figure
4) was found in a burial from the pyramid of the moon in Moche. 
Where it was found, and the fact that it has such large holes in
its ears indicates that it was probably a portrait or a funerary
mask of someone from the elite.  It had shell inlaid for its
eyes, and was painted.  The metal used was an alloy of copper and
gold. Along with alloying metals, and techniques of inlaying
materials, the process known as "lost wax" casting first appears
in Peru during this period.  This is "the process of pouring
molten metal into a mold." (Untracht, 481).  These molds were
created by putting a plaster-like substance over a model which
was created in wax.  The wax would then be melted out of the
mold, leaving a negative space, which would later be filled with
molten metal. 
     In the same time period as the Mochica, in the southern
highlands was the Tiahuanacos.  These were a very influential
people, and few tribes escaped incorporation into their cultural,
political, and religious beliefs.  The Mochica, avoiding the
Tiahuanaco, pushed further to the North.  The only other region
not to "...fall under the sway of the all-prevailing Tiahuanaco
influence [was]: the southern highland enclave around Cuzco,
where the early Inca style maintained itself with vigorous
independence." (Emmerich, 20-21).  The Tiahuanaco society was
very directed and organized, and they had a strong religious
focus.  The best examples of their metalwork are "mummy masks"
from the coastal burials of this period.  These masks contain the
characteristics of Tiahuanaco art, which are: geometricity - the
squared off heads, and wing-like or weeping eyes. Both of these
characteristics can be found in Figure 5. This example shows
raised features, strap joining, and is also painted.  Figure 6
shows a silver feline mask, whose "...prominent fang like teeth
are a carry-over from the ancient Chavin tradition, but the
squared-off quality of the head and eyes is typical of Tiahuanaco
stylization." (Emmerich, 23).  In the period between 900 and 1100
AD., however, their influence began to die down, and, because the
cultures of the areas absorbed by the Tiahuanaco were never
totally wiped out, areas cultures began to return. 
     Between 1100 AD. and the mid-1400's, a period that
archaeologists call that of the "City builders" appears. 
"Urbanization...was the powerful new social force that made
possible the tightly knit political organization...that
foreshadowed the highly organized state perfected by the Incas."
(Emmerich, 25).  Chan Chan was the site of this next influential
stage in the development of metalsmithing.  As were the cultures
prior to them, their culture was a stratified one, based on the
belief that those in power had supernatural connections or
supernatural ancestors (the sun).  A new form of metalsmithing
appears in this period.  The human effigy beaker which was
continued to the time of the Inca.  Shown here in figure 7 is an
amazing accomplishment in the craft of metal work.  This beaker
was formed from one round sheet of silver.  The artist would have
to proceed with extreme caution while hammering out this form. 
Annealing, as discussed earlier, must have taken place constantly
for this piece not to have cracked. 
       This was also a period where massive amounts of silver and
gold were recorded to have covered the walls of palaces and
temples (a practice that continued to Inca times).  Recorded by
Pedro Pizarro, the gateway to a principle temple alone had almost
half-a-ton of gold on its walls.  The view of the city must have
been very beautiful, with the sunlight shining off the walls of
gold.  This idea of covering an object with plaques of gold can
also be seen in a gold tunic.  "This ceremonial tunic, which was
used in ritual feasts, is composed of 30,000 small plates of gold
sewn to a cloth ground that is more than three feet long."
(Untracht, 224).  Between 1462 and 1470, the Chimu were absorbed
by their predecessors: the Inca.
     The Inca were recorded as having the "...greatest respect
for Chimu craftsmanship.  Chimu metalsmiths were taken to Cuzco
to work for the Inca." (Benson et al, 194).  In the time of the
Incas, the artist was seen as an employee of the state.  "The
kori-camayoc, literally 'he who is in charge of gold,' was given
raw gold and silver with which to make objects for distribution
by the state for temple usage and to the aristocracy" (Emmerich,
42).  The aristocracy was the only group able to wear or use
items of precious metals, all the commoners had to wear either
copper or bronze (an alloy of copper and tin).  All gold washed
from rivers and silver from mines was automatically the state's
property.  The people were also taxed, having one third for
themselves, one third for the state, and the last third for the
gods (in other words, two thirds for the state).  The tax could
be food, gold or silver, or labor.  Some of the labor was based
on the Inca's road system.  This was their means of getting news
to either end of the empire, and was restricted to empirical
causes.  "...Well-built causeways covered the country in a
systematic network.  Bridges were built and kept in repair. 
Tampus ("wayside shelters") were kept up, one days journey from
one another, where the traveler could find lodging and food."
(Keleman, 45).  Their empire was very clearly organized.
     The center of the Inca empire was Cuzco, and it was here
that the ruler would build his palace, as in the practice of the
Chimu, sheathed in gold.  The furnishing of these palaces was
done in a fashion which mimicked nature.  They were loaded with
images of animals and plants, all in gold and silver.  According
to Pedro de Cieza de Leon, a contemporary chronicler, they would
reproduce leaves growing up the walls in gold, and among them
would be "...gold or silver lizards, butterflies, mice and
snakes, which were so well made and cunningly placed, that one
had the impression of seeing them run about in all directions."
(Emmerich, 44).  He goes on to add that all he could possibly say
to make them appear more marvelous than they were would not be
enough.  He was obviously overwhelmed at the beauty and the
richness of these Inca buildings.  Figure 8 shows a silver alpaca
which is a little over nine inches tall.  Realistically
portrayed, its body can be slightly detected beneath its woolly
fleece.  I can imagine this in one of the emperors' palaces,
standing among some plants.  
     Every new emperor would have to build a new palace, and
furnish it with new gold for himself.  After his death, his
palace would be kept intact, and servants would take care of all
of his possessions including a golden effigy statue of him.  This
"pucarina" would be taken care of as if it was the actual
emperor.  "Chroniclers have described the...ceremonial visits
arranged by the servants of past rulers, with the pucarina of one
ruler being carried in state as if alive...to the palace of
another dead man." (Emmerich, 44).  Although this seems bizarre,
this "ancestor worship" played an important role in the
activities of their culture.  After all, these men were seen as
the descendants of the sun, as supernatural beings, sons of the
sun.  
     Metallurgically speaking, the only contribution that the
Incas made to the technical aspect of the Peruvians was that of
inlaying metals into one another.  Figure 9, a silver llama, has
a blanket which is inlaid with gold wire, and filled with red
cinnabar-resin, even the toes of this little beast are inlaid
with gold.  The delicate attention to detail in this piece as
well as the alpaca is incredible.  The artisans of these times
obviously understood the possibilities of metal, and, used all of
the techniques known to them.  It is a wonder that any of these
pieces remain from the conquest, and it raises the mournful
question of how much was lost.  This loss, however, goes far
beyond the mere objects.
     The conquests of the Inca had begun in the early 1400's. 
These conquests "...gave them an empire of more than 700,000
square miles with [a population of] ten million people" (Hemming,
95).  It was bound together by a single language, and a single
emperor.  In 1527, Huayna Capac, their eleventh emperor, died. 
The soothsayers said that their "father the Sun" told them that
there would be only "...twelve Incas, his own sons, to reign on
this earth; and that then, new, hitherto unknown people would
arrive; that they would obtain victory and subject all of [the
Inca's] kingdoms to their Empire..." (Lunenfeld, 267).  Despite
this premonition, the death of Huayna Capac ignited a civil war
between his two sons: Huascar and his half-brother Atahualpa,
amongst who the empire was to be divided.  "The consequent
division of power was to prove incompatible with the symbolic and
religious organization of the Inca kingdom." (Stierlin, 226). 
One of the half-brothers had to become sole ruler.  Atahualpa won
this title and became the emperor of the Inca kingdom shortly
before the Spaniards arrived in 1532.
     Nobody is quite clear on what Atahualpa thought of this
small band of Spaniards, but many sources believe that the Incas
thought of these men as gods, because they appeared similar to
one of the Incas main gods.  As Lunenfeld suggests, "the Inca
rulers were themselves treated as gods - children of the sun - so
it was not unreasonable to think the foreigners...could in some
sense be divine." (268).  Unfortunately for the Incas, they could
not have been more wrong.  Shortly after Pizarro's arrival,
Atahualpa was taken captive.  While in captivity, he may have
made a decision to have his allies "...murder his half-brother,
so that Huascar might not take advantage of the situation."
(Lunenfeld, 174).  It is this action that the Spanish held a
quick mock trial for, of which they found Atahualpa guilty.  He
was executed in 1533.  "The conquest of Peru started with
checkmate - the capture and execution of the king." (Hemming,
111).  The true battle followed, but the natives were outclassed
in weapons and armor.  They were destroyed.  The prophesy had
come true.  
     The people and almost all of their metal art were destroyed
by the conquistadors.  Most of the pieces were probably melted
down out of pure greed, and the destruction of the rest would
have been justified by their pagan or idolatrous appearance.  The
only pieces that have survived were either hidden or buried in
secret tombs.  As a testimony to the vast amounts of silver and
gold that were taken from the Inca in their closing years,
between 1532 and 1550, we must go to the reports made to the king
by the conquistadors.  These numbers would not have been boasted
amounts, considering that "... under Spanish law, twenty percent
of all loot was set aside as the king's share..." (Emmerich, 42). 
In any case, there would probably have been a lessening in the
amounts by "overlooking" a few ingots here and there.  The
reports show "...15,000 arrobas of gold and 50,000 arrobas of
silver.  Calculated at the rate of 25.4 pounds per arroba, this
amounts to 381,000 pounds - over 190 tons - of gold and 635 tons
of silver per year." (Emmerich, 43).  Per year.  
     "Not a single documented object exists from all the loot of
Peru.  All has disappeared without a trace, lost or thrown into
the smelters of greedy and ignorant generations." (Emmerich,
xix).  This means that all of the beautiful sights, the ones he
could not give enough justice to, seen by that Spanish chronicler
are gone.  One can only imagine how many beautiful creations,
palaces full, such as the llama and the alpaca were melted down
to be shipped in ingot form back to the king, destroyed forever
as were the people who created them.  
     So few pieces remain, but are a testimony of the stylistic
and technological advances of the Peruvians up to the time and
greatness of the Inca metalsmiths.  
     
Bibliography

Benson, Elizabeth and Coe, Michael and Snow, Dean.  Atlas of
Ancient America. New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1986. 

Emmerich, Andre.  Sweat of the Sun & Tears of the Moon. 
Washington: University of Washington Press, 1965.
     
Hemming, John.  "Pizarro: Conqueror of the Inca."  National
Geographic  February 1992: p90-120.
     
Keleman, Pal.  Art of the Americas: Ancient and Hispanic.  New
York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1969.

Lunenfeld, Martin.  1492 Discovery, Invasion, Encounter. 
Massachusetts: D.C. Heath and Company, 1991.
     
Stierlin, Henri.  Art of the Incas.  New York: Rizolli
International Publications, Inc., 1984.  
     
Untracht, Oppi.  Metal Techniques for Craftsmen.  New York:
Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1968.