Sociology 303
Sociological Theory
Dr. Scott SchafferHow to Read Social Theory
Social theory is, by far, one of the more difficult courses to take in sociology. While other courses show you that the world works, theory takes you “backstage” – it shows you how the world works and why it works in the way that it does. Hence, theory serves almost as the foundation of the entire discipline of sociology, and understanding social theory is about the best way possible to understand both sociology and the social world.
So, it should come as no surprise that reading social theory is one of the more difficult endeavors you can take on. Social theory is, to some extent, a combination of philosophy and sociology. Dealing in abstractions, hypothesizing about the origins of society, getting behind the scenes, sometimes in ways that those in power don’t want you to – this is the nature of this field of study.
The three main texts we’re reading for this course (On Morality and Society, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, and The Marx-Engels Reader) are the fundamental texts in social theory, and it’s rare to find a course where you get to read them directly (as opposed to reading someone’s ideas about them) or where you get to read them almost in their entirety. And because they are the seminal texts in social theory (indeed, in sociology), there is also a lot of room for interpretation and different kinds of understanding about them. This should, on some level, make this course exciting – there’s a lot of room for you to inject your own views of these authors into class discussions, your discussion groups, and your papers.
On the other hand, this class can be terrifying. The combination of philosophy and sociology, as well as the age of the texts (about 100-150 years old) and their importance can be scary. All three of them are translations, as well, so the language the authors use may not be something you’re used to. Taken together, you’re in for a rough ride. However, if you keep in mind what follows below, you will be in good stead.
A. Read everything
Yep, you saw that right. Your success in this course will depend on reading everything assigned. There are two reasons for this. First, the authors’ arguments get developed throughout the entire text. It is possible to “get the idea” by reading only selections, but reading the entire text provides you with both a sense of how the author reached their conclusions and the nuances of their argument that have made these texts so vibrant and so hotly debated for over 100 years. Second, authors often repeat themselves in their work. They will often say the same thing over and over, restate their ideas in different terms, use different examples to illustrate their point, and be redundant so that their point gets hammered into your head. (Get the picture yet?) So, it’s not unusual to be completely lost in the introduction to a book (where the author often states their main point), understand them perfectly on page 43, be lost on page 122, and get it on page 189. Read the whole thing.
B. Utilize signposts
Unlike other courses, such as mathematics and the hard sciences, there are no “right” or “wrong” answers to questions raised in sociology, only “better” or “worse” answers. This means that you have to come up with your own ideas about what the authors are saying, how it applies to the world, whether it applies to the world, etc. Hence, lectures can never provide you with anything more than signposts on this path. I will work to give you the basic understanding of what each author has to say about the social world, and I’ll give you everything you need to get beyond the “soundbites” of each theorist’s work. But it is your task to figure out whether or not the authors’ ideas are relevant for our society today.
Discussion questions will also provide you with signposts on your quest. The questions are intended to do three things. First, they are to help you with figuring out “exactly” what each author is saying. They’ll help you figure out the basic ideas, concepts, relationships, etc., that each author is grappling with. Second, the questions will help you compare and contrast authors. The questions will help you thematize what each author says about the social world (and how they see the world) so that, when writing your papers, you will have a better understanding of where everyone is coming from. Third, the questions are intended to help prepare you for the task of investing your papers with your own thoughts (see “How to Write a Schaffer Paper”). By getting you to deal with these kinds of questions, you’ll be prepared to respond to the paper topics. Make sure that you keep the discussion questions in the back of your head while reading these works.
As well, the authors themselves will often give you signposts. Examples cited frequently; restatements and repetitions; certain metaphors they use – all of these things will help you figure out what they’re trying to say and how they’re talking about the world. Keep track of these – they’ll generally put you on the right track.C. Reading the texts
There are a number of things that you can do while reading the texts that will help you improve your understanding of what each author is trying to say.
1. Take notes. I know this sounds obvious, but taking notes with page numbers will help you both keep track of the author’s argument for your understanding and help organize you for the paper-writing process. But what to take notes on? Metaphors; examples; bold statements that contradict others; invectives and vitriol; etc. – these will help you figure out what’s what for them.
2. Keep track of the imagery. Remember that the task of social theory is to show you how the authors understand the inner workings of the social world. The processes and phenomena they describe and analyze are things that are beyond our everyday level of awareness and understanding (at least until you’re done with this course). So the authors will often resort to metaphor, metonymy, analogy, etc., to illustrate their point. Keep track of these images. Usually, one of the examples they use will help you get inside the author’s mind.
3. Is the theory prescriptive, diagnostic, or descriptive? That is, is the author merely describing how the world works, or are they saying how the world should work? Every bit of social theory at some level involves what is known as the “is/ought” distinction – talking about how things are as opposed to how things should be. Knowing whether the author is writing descriptive or prescriptive theory is an important key to understanding what the author is trying to say.
4. Take note of who the author is arguing against. We’ll talk about the “sticking dummies” that each author chooses in order to show why their argument is better. But many times, writers can only engage in “negative definitions” – outlining their theory by saying what their theory is not. While understanding each author’s opponents is an important part of reading social theory, you should use this understanding in order to improve your understanding of the author at hand.
5. Feel free to read outside materials on each of the theorists. There are a number of good books written on each author (Giddens’ book Capitalism and modern social theory is an excellent one on Marx, Weber, and Durkheim), and an excellent web site on social theory (accessible through the MU Sociology department web site), that you should feel free to read in order to improve your understanding of what the authors are saying. However, do not take these outside authors’ readings of our texts as if they were scripture. Your success in this course is dependent upon your understanding of the texts, and parroting outside authors not only doesn’t help you develop your own understanding of the materials, it’s also prohibited for the assignments. (And yes, I’ve read them all, so don’t try to fool me.)
Other Ideas and Insights:
While just above I said that this is one of the most difficult courses in sociology, it really doesn’t have to be. There are two reasons why this is. First, there is your fear – many of you have put off this course until the semester just before graduation; others have been told by advisors that this isn’t the class you need to take “right now”; still others have heard me referred to as “Dr. Lucifer” and are letting that get to you. Do not fret, mes ami(e)s. This class is made much more difficult if you’re scared of it. Yes, these are difficult texts; yes, you are being asked to read a lot of material; and yes, your ideas of the world will be challenged by these materials, by others in the class when we discuss the works, and by me. But these are things that should inspire you, not instill fear. It is a rare moment when you are allowed to – nay, compelled – to come up with your own answers, ideas, understandings, etc., of course material.
Second, this class will be made much less difficult if you stick with it. These readings will frustrate you; I will frustrate you; you will be frustrated. Don’t give up. My lectures are designed to get you through the basics of each text – the what, when, and why – and to give you a set of tools for understanding what’s going on. You cannot rely on lectures, the optional but highly recommended book, or outside materials as the basis for your writing. Each paper will ask you to provide a deeper analysis of the reading, and will require you to evaluate these materials in some critical way. In order to do that, though, you need to stay with the course – be in class for every session, keep up with the readings and discussion questions, meet with your discussion groups, and come to my office hours. I may seem intimidating, but really I’m just a teddy bear.
Also, as you’re reading these materials, keep two additional things in mind:
1. These books are actually quite like novels – they tell a story, nothing more. Instead of these being stories of interesting individuals faced with serious dramatic problems, though, these books are stories of how people think society works and how it should work. They represent a perspective, a way of seeing the world, as much as they give you a set of statements about how the world works. One of your tasks will be to figure out how they see the world – what their theoretical perspective is – and, ultimately, to use that perspective. We do it on a daily basis with other things – religion for understanding why things happen to us; TV shows like Friends for understanding our love lives; baseball metaphors for figuring out what’s going on in politics – this stuff is no different.
2. While this may seem like a DWEM (dead white European male) course and that Durkheim, Weber, and Marx are not talking about anything going on in our world, they actually are. You can, once you figure out each author’s perspective, look at the world through their eyes. If you can find a way to make what each author says speak to your world – how you live your life, what you do, and how you think about what you do – then this class will be that much easier.
You’ll find this course challenging. You will, most likely, genuinely hate me at some point. You will get through it. You will (if you put in the thought process, energy, and effort and complete all of your assignments) pass. You will thank me for this. And ultimately, you’ll be better off for having taken it.